PRINCETON.N. J. 

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M MESSRS. Reales AND A. Stuart. 


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https://archive.org/details/nebrewgrammarofg00gese_0 


| ~. 
HEBREW GRAMMAR OF GESEN TUS 


AS EDITED BY 


ROEDIGER 


- 


TRANSLATED, WITH ADDITIONS, AND ALSO A __ 


HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY 


BY 


M. STUART 


PROFESSOR OF SACRED LITERATURE, THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, ANDOVER. 


ANDOVER: 
PUBLISHED BY ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARDWELL. 
NEW YORK: MARK H. NEWMAN & CO. 
BOSTON: JOHN P. JEWETT & CO. 
1846. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by 
Moses STuaART, 
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 


Tue sixth edition of my Hebrew Grammar being exhausted, the Publishers in- 
vited me to renew my labour, and furnish them with material for a seventh. En- 
gaged as I have been in other labours, I hesitated for sometime whether to accept 
the invitation. In this state of things, Roediger’s edition of Gesenius’ Hebrew 
Grammar came to hand, (the fourteenth edition of that work), and a perusal of it 
led me to the conclusion, that it would cost not much more labor to translate and 
publish that, than it would to remodel my own so as to satisfy my own mind, and 
meet the present state of Hebrew literature. Grsrnrus, for a period of nearly 
forty years, continued to correct and remodel his smaller Grammar; and not- 
withstanding the many and able competitors which he had in Garnaut: he so far 
outdid them all, as to make his work popular and secure its reception in most of the 
High Schools. RoxrpiGer, his pupil, colleague, and intimate friend, was entrusted 
with the editorship of the recent edition, issued since the death of Gesenius. He. 
has executed the work with great ability. It embodies the results of all the recent 
advances in the knowledge of the Hebrew, and is the most complete representative 
of the present state of Hebrew philology, with which I am acquainted. Roediger’s 
preéminent attainments in oriental philology, no well informed scholar will venture 
to call in question. The Grammar of Gesenius, as edited by him, bears marks of 
his extensive knowledge, on nearly every page. His own testimony in regard to 
what he has done will describe the nature and extent of his labours, as briefly and 
plainly as any thing which I could say; and for the satisfaction of the reader I will 
place it before him. 

“The doctrine respecting the Aspirates ({ 7—10), and the theory of the Vowels, 
and of Sheva (4 7—10. 25—28), are more or less changed. The Gutterals s and 5 
(§ 23) are separated from the feeble letters 1 and » (§ 24). In the second part, which 
treats of the forms of words, the sections on the Article, on the Verbal-Suffixes, and 
on the Verbs 45 NB, 13, 4d, and nm, have undergone essential alterations. In re- 


spect to Nouns, a variety of changes were needed; but much could not be done here 
without completely breaking up the arrangement. In the mean time, § 88 has been 
rewritten; also § 79. 86. 86b, and much besides, have been modified anew. In the 
Syntax, a new arrangement of the whole might be desirable, with which a new treat- 
ment of many topics should be connected. But I was not allowed to make so great 
a,change; and therefore had to limit myself to a variety of emendations. Jn all 
parts of the Grammar, here and there, additions are made in this new edition.” Pref. 
p. viii. 

When I knew, from actual comparison, that this account of what Roediger has. 
done, is true, I did not long hesitate to select the work, as shaped by him, for repub- 
lication. My translation is designed to be a free one ; not in respect to modifying or 
changing the views of the writer, but merely as to the costume with which they are in- 
vested. It has been my design and effort to Anglicize the style, certain technical 
words alone excepted. Ihave, in some cases, interwoven a marginal note, with the 
text; in some few cases abridged the mode of expression ; in others I have enlarged, 
or added something, merely in order to make the matter as perpicuous to the be- 


1V PREFACE. 


ginner as might be. Many paragraphs, printed in large type by Roediger, and which 
are merely illustrations or examples, I have here printed in smaller type, as being 
more appropriate. No inconsiderable additions de novo have also been made to the 
work, from notes of my own which were made in the course of my Hebrew reading, 
or from renewed study as exigencies demanded. These I have included in brackets, 
and to these I have appended my initial [S], wherever they are long enough to be 
thus distinguished. But when the additions that I have made, were very short and 
merely exegetical of the original work, I have not generally distinguished them thus; 
as it would serve no important purpose. Ihave aimed to give Roediger as he is; 
and in the few cases where I differ from him, I have expressed my reasons for it, 
without concealing or designedly changing his views, in a single instance. I would 
hope, that I have done some service to the reader, at least in a part of these cases. 
Certain I am, that some of my additions have cost me much labor and investigation. 

Ihave added a new page (p. 310) of Paradigms of the doubly irregular Verbs, 
in order to aid the beginner. To the whole work, I have appended a Chrestomathy, 
on a plan, which, if it is not new, is at least more thorough as to grammatical praxis 
than my own former one, or than any one which has come under my notice. My 
reasons for not printing the Hebrew text with-it, are obvious. It is superfluous; it 
would augment the price of the student’s apparatus ; and it would swell the present 
volume to an inconvenient size. Those who prefer it, can now bind up the Chres- 
tomathy by itself, as the other part of the work is completed independently of it. 

I feel quite certain, that if the student will faithfully follow out the method of 
study which is commended in the Chrestomathy, and exemplified in the Notes, he 
may promise himself to acquire, in a moderate length of time, a radical and profita- 
ble knowledge of the Hebrew. 

Another translation of Roedigers’ Grammar has been made, and recently pub- 
lished in England. Of this I had no knowledge when I began my labour, and have 
not, to the present time, been able to procure a copy. Whatever coincidences be- 
tween the English edition and mine there may be, they are of course entirely acci- 
dental. 

In justice to the printers and publishers of the present work, I ought to say, that 
they have spared neither pains nor expense, to present it in an appropriate dress to 
the public. Some few errors I have occasionally found, in consulting every part of 
the Grammar in order to make the Chrestomathy. Most of them result from the 
breaking of the vowels in striking off the sheets. All that was possible to be done, 
for the sake of accuracy, has been done. 

If the noble language of the Hebrews, the very genius and nature of which is 
poetic and animated beyond the conception of any mere English reader, was not the 
original language of our first progenitors, it is at least one which deserved to be 
spoken in Eden itself. It is impossible that it should not create enthusiasm in all 
intelligent readers of it, provided that they attain to a critical knowledge of its true 
idiom and character. Without a knowledge of these, many a passage in the New 
Testament must always be left to conjecture. It is therefore to be hoped, that the 
study of it may be extended greatly beyond its present limits; and especially that 
the ministers of the divine word, may in general become familiarly acquainted with 
it. Independently of the sacred nature of the Old Testament, the book is altogether 
the most extraordinary in its character of any production that the ancient world has 
bequeathed us. 

M. STUART. 
Theol. Seminary, Andover, 
Oct. 1846. t 


CONTENTS, 


aan 
‘ 


INTRODUCTION. 


§ 1. Of the Semitic 





languages in| § 3. Grammatical Treatises on the 


general. Page 1 Hebrew language 12 
§ 2. Historical Sketch of the Hebrew | § 4. Division and Arrangement of 

language. : ; 7 Grammar 14 

DIVISION I. ( ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES). 
Cuar. I. Written Signs, and their Meaning. 

§ 5. Consonants ; Form and Name 17 | § 11. Reading-Signs 4. eae) 
§ 6. Pronunciation and Division of § 12. Daghesh in general; Daghesh 

Consonants . 20 forte in particular 38 
§ 7. Vowels in general; Vowel-let-|§ 13. Daghesh lene 39 

ters and Vowel-signs 24 § 14. Mappiq and Raphe . 40 
§ 8 Vowel-Signs ? 27 | § 15. Accents 40 
§ 9, Character and Powers of the |§ 16. Maqqeph and Methegh 43 
: Vowels . 30,§17. Qeri and Kethibh 45 
§ 10. Half-Vowels seta Syllable-Di- 

vider : 35 


Cuap. IL Peculiarities and Changes of Letters, Syllables, and Accents. 


§ 18. General Remarks : 
§ 19, Changes of the Consonants 46 
§ 20. Doubling of Consonants by 

Daghesh forte 48 


§ 21. Daghesh lene, when inserted | 


and when omitted 50 
§ 22. Gutturals, their powers and pe- 


46 | 





§ 25. Immutable Vowels . 59 
§ 26. Syllables, their Influence on 
the Vowels . 60 


§ 27. Changes of the Vowels, special- 
ly in respect to Quantity 63 
§ 28. Rise of new Vowels and Sylla- 


bles 67 


culiarities . - 52} § 29. Accent or Tone- syllable ; chan- 
§ 23. Feeble Sounds of the Gutturals ges, specially by Pause-ac- 

sand 5 : . 55 cents . 69 
§ 24. Mutations of the feeble Letters 

sand * 57 

DIVISION II. (PRINCIPLES OF FORMS). 
Concerning the various parts of Speech. 

§ 30. Stem and Root-Words, (bilite-|§ 31. Of grammatical Structure 75 


ral, triliteral, quadriliteral) 71 


CONTENTS. * | 
¢ “a 


\ ” 


Cuar. I. (The Pronoun). 


$ . 
§ 32. Pronouns personal and sepa-|§ 35. The Article . — . - Ol 
rate. : ‘ . 76|§36. Relative Pronoun. rani 
§ 33. Suffix Pronouns. . 79|§ 37. Pronoun interrogative and in- 
§ 34. The demonstrative Pronoun 80 | _ definite .. : . 83 
Cuar. IL (The Verb). 
§ 38. General View : . 83] § 40. Number and order of the'chan- 
§ 39. Conjugations of Verb, or chan- . ges in the ground-form — 86 
ges of its ground-forms 84 § 41. General Analogy in the forma- 
tion of Verbs : « 87 
I, Of the regular Verb. 
§ 42. Preparatory remarks : : : ; ; : Peet | 
[A] Ground Form of Kal. 
§ 43. Form and meaning of Kal 88 | § 48. Jussive and Hortative, in the 
§ 44. Perfect of Kal, and its Inflec- Imperfect and Imperative 95 
tion. : f . 88) § 48b. Perfect and Imperfect with 
§ 45. Infinitive Mode : 1 Vav consecutive. ‘97 
§ 46. The Imperative , . 92] § 49. The Participle : 99 
§ 47. Imperfect Tense and its Inflec- 
tion. . : es 3) 


§ 67. 


. Niphal . : ; - 100 
. Piel and Pual f . 102 
. Hiphil and Hophal an, LOS 


. General Remarks . SE 
. Pronoun-Suftixes to the 


. Perfect with Pronoun-Suf- 


. Verbs 45, Pe Nun, or first 





[B] Derived Conjugations. 
§ 53. Hithpael : ‘ Map: tir 


§ 54. Unusual Conjugations . 109 
§ 55, Quadriliterals . ae 


[C] Verbal Pronoun-Suffzes. 


§ 59. Imperfect with Pronoun-Suf- 
fixes . ; : » ALIS 
§ 60. Inf, Imper., and Participle, 
with Suffixes . : ee 








Verb. : ‘ aye 


fixes . ; . ; iG 
Il. Of the wregular Verbs—[A] Verbs with Gutturals. 


. General Remarks . Sal d7 | § 63. Verbs second or middle Gut- 
. Verbs first Guttural nae | 


tural . . : ¢ ALD 
§ 64. Verbs third Guttural . 120 
[B] Contract Verbs. 


§ 66. Verbs 2d, i.e. Ayin doubled, 
or midd. radical doubled 122 





Radical Nun f SEAL 


[C] Feeble Verbs. 


§ 68. Verbs "5; first Class 15; e. g. 
au. suis ~ 127 


Verbs quiescent 8D; e. g. 
ok ; 4 .* 126 





! 


fa 


7 o 


bi ex CONTENTS. age 


§ 69. agg SB; ad Class "B; 
ego. . . 130 
§ 70. Verbs “by third Class, contract- 
ed Verbs 4D : - 130 
§ 71. Verbs 53, i. e. second Radical 
43 eg. BIp ie ea) 
§ 72. Verbs "3, i. e. second Radical 

. 

5 e& g. Ps 





* - 


Hs 
“ 


|§ 73. Verbs ND, i.e, third Radical 8; 
e.g. 8X2. . . 1360 

§ 74, ee mb, i.e. third Radical 5; 
g. Hibs ; ; 137 

§ 75. Verbs doubly irregular , 143 
§ 76. Relation of irregular Verbs to 
each other . : . 14 


134 | § 77. Defective Verbs. . 144 


Cuap. i. ( Of the Noun). 


78. General View 3 445 
79, Gender J . 146 
80. Original Source of Nouns 148 
81. Nouns primitive. i248 
82. Verbal Nouns; general Re- 
marks ; : . 149 

§ 83. Derivate Nouns of regular 
Verbs ‘ : mn, Lop 
§ 84. Derivates ofirregular Verbs 154 
§ 85. Denominative Nouns. 155 
§ 86. Of the Plural : . 156 


§86b. The Dual . : Helse 
§ 87. Genitive and Construct- 

State p , . 160 

Cuap. IV. 


§ 97. General Remarks . 186 
§ 98. Adverbs . : o OLS. 
§ 99. Prepositions L . 188 
§ 100. Prefix-Prepositions . 189 


DIVISION III. 
(Syntax of the Noun). 


Cuap., 1. 


§ 104. Helton of Noun to Adjective ; 
of Abstract to Concrete 196 
§ 105. Use of Gender. Pre 4 
§ 106. Plural and Collectives . 200 
§ 107. The Article . - 203 
§ 108. Omission of the Article 207 
§ 109. Article in connected Words 208 
§ 110. Connection of Noun by! ith Ad- 
jective “7 211 
§ 111. Apposition . ; tue 
§ 112. The Genitive : . 213 
§ 113, Cireumscription of the Geni- 
tive . 214 
§ 114. Further Use of the Construet- 
Btate , . . 215 








§ 88. Remains of ancient Case-End- 

ings (n-, "=, i-) Re (5. 
§ 89. Noun with Pronoun-Suffixes 164 
§ 90. Vowel-Changes in the Noun 168 
§ 91. Paradigms of the masculine 


Nonns i low 
§ 92. Changes of Vowels i in forming 
the iBone ‘ «146 


§ 93. Paradigms of the Feminines 178 
§ 94. List of irregular Nouns . 181 
§ 95. Cardinal Numbers; Paradigms, 

6fC, 1". ° FeTe2 
§ 96. Ordinal Notbers - . 185 


(Particles). 
§ 101. Prepositions with Suffixes 190 


§ 102. Conjunctions : P1938 
§ 103. Interjections : . 194 


(SYNTAX.) 


§ 115. Designation of the other Ca- 

ses . : . 216 
§ 116. Use of the ‘Acouetite ele 
§ 117. Compar. and Superlative 218 


§ 118. Syntax of Numerals . 219, 


§ 119. Use of the Pers. Pronoun 221 

§ 120. Demonstrative and Interroga- 
tive Pronouns . » 224 

§ 121, Relative Pronoun, and Rela- 
tive Clauses. - 225 

§ 122. Manner of the Hebrews in ex- 
pressing Pronouns peculiar 
to us 


- 


vii ~ 


. 


Vili CONTENTS. 


Cnap. IIL. (Syntax of the Verb). 
§ 123. Use of the Tenses in gen-| § 132. Construction of the Partici- 


eral : -- 228 ple . F . 247 
§ 124. Use of the Perfect . 229) § 133. Mode of expressing the Opta- 
§ 125. Use of the Imperfect . 233 tive”: . 248 


§ 126. Peculiarities of the prolonged | § 134. Persons of the Verb . 249. 

and apocopate Imperf. 236) § 135. Verbs with the Accusative 250 
§ 126 b. Imperfect with Vav Consec-| § 136. Verbs with a double Accusa- 

utive : 5 . 237 tive ‘ » 252 
§ 127. The Imperative . . 239) § 1387. Verbs with Prepositions 252 
§ 128. The Infinitive Absolute 240 § 138. Constructio pregnans . 253 
§ 129. The Infinitive Construct 243) § 189. Two Verbs connected in one 





§ 1380. Connection of Inf. construct | idea : : . 254 
with Subject and Object 244 | § 140. Construction with the Pas- 
§ 131. Use of the Participle . 246 Bive .’T*-'23 ; . 206 


Cuap. IV. (Connection of Subject with Predicate). 


§ 141. Expression of the Copula 258 | § 144. Position of the Predicate 262 
§ 142. Arrangement of Words in Sen- | § 145, Construction of compound 
tences ; Case absolute 259 Subjects. F . 263 
§ 143. Subject and Predicate as to 
Gender and Number . 260 


Cuar. V. (Use of the Particles). | 


§ 146. General Remarks . 264/§ 150. Interrogative Words and Sen- 
§ 147. Adverbs. é . 265 tences : > . 269 
§ 148. Construction of Adverbs 267 | § 151. Prepositions . - 272 
§ 149. Particles of Negation . 267 | § 152. Conjunctions ‘ . eld 

§ 153. Interjections : ./7 RR 


EXCURSUS. 
Exe. I. On the Antiquity of the Egyptian Letters ‘ ; - 283 
Exe. Il. Egyptian Etymology of the Personal Pronouns : . 285 


Paradigms. 
A. Of the personal Pronouns, separate and suffix . : . 288 


_ B—P. Of the Verbs regular, with Suffixes, and irregular - 290 seq. 


Index ; A ; ; : : : : ; aps 


. 


Appendix comprising Directions for Study, and a Heb. Chrestomathy 317 


INTRODUCTION. 


§1. 
On the Semitic Languages in general. 


1. Tue Hebrew is only one particular branch of a more ex- 
tensive parent-language of hither Asia, which was native in 
Palestine, Phenicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Arabia, 
and also in the countries from the Mediterranean Sea to the Ti- 
gris, and from the Armenian Mountains to the southern coast 
of Arabia. In ancient times, moreover, it spread itself from 
Arabia over Ethiopia, and by means of Phenician colonies over 
many islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and particularly 
over the whole of the Carthaginian coast-lands.* An ancient 
name appropriate to this parent-language of many nations, is 
wanting. Semitic language, however, is an appellation at pres- 
ent generally received; and inasmuch as a more appropriate 
one has not been furnished, this may be retained. This appel- 
lation is borrowed from the fact, that most of the nations who 
spoke this language, were the descendants of Shem (Sem); 
Gen. 10: 21 seq.t 


2. This Semitic parent-language is divided into three main 


* Tn the regions also of the Numidian kingdom are found monuments in the Phe- 
nician language (inscriptions and coins); but it is doubtful whether this language 
was much diffused among the Numidian population. See Gesenius’ Palaeographi- 
sche Studien, s. 67 f, Monumenta Phenicia, p. 182 seq. 

+ In this passage, the Aramaean and Arabian tribes, as well as the Hebrews, are 
derived from Shem; but not the Ethiopians and Canaanites (Phenicians), who are 
derived from Ham; see vs. 7,15 seq. On the other hand, in v. 21, the Elamites and 
Assyrians are reckoned among the Semitae, while their language is not of the same 
stock with the so called Semitic. [At a later period, this is undoubtedly true; but at 
the time when Genesis was written, the Semitae may have been in possession of more 
countries.—S. } 

1 


2 §1. sEMITIC LANGUAGES. [InT. 


branches: (a) The Arabic; which has its seat in the southern 
part of the Semitic domain of language. ‘To this belongs the 
Aethiopic, as the offspring of the South Arabian (Himyaritic). 
(b) The Aramaean; in the north and northeast. This is called 
the Syriac, in the form which it takes in Christian Aramaean 
literature; but it is named Chaldee, as presented in the Jewish 
Aramaean writings. To this last belong some later portions of 
the Old Testament, viz. Ezra 4: 8—6: 18. 7: 12—26. Dan. 2:4 
—7:28.* As the Chaldee very frequently has a Hebrew co- 
louring, so also has the Samaritan, which belongs to this same 
class. The Aramaean of the Nasoraeans, (Disciples of Jobn, 
Sabians), is a very debased dialect, even more corrupt than the 
present Vulgar-Syriac.t (c) The Hebrew; with which the 
Canaanitish and Phenician (Punic) nearly coincide—These 
languages stand in about the same relation to each other as the 
Germanic family of languages, (e. g. the Gothic, Old North, 
Danish, Swedish, high and low German, in the older and more 
recent dialects); or as the Slavish family, (e. g. the Lithuanian, 
Lettish; old Slavish, Servian, Russian; Polish, Bohemian). 
They are either altogether extinct, as the Phenician; or they 
exist only in an altered and distorted form, as the Aramaean 
among the Syrian Christians in Curdistan and Mesopotamia}; 
the Aethiopic in the new Abyssinian dialects (Tigre, Amharic) ; 
and the Hebrew among a part of the Jews now living, (although 
these aim at a reproduction in their writings of the Old Testa- 
ment language). The Arabic language, however, has not only 
retained until the present time its original seat, Arabia proper, 
but has penetrated in every direction into other domains of lan- 
guage. 

The Semitic Janguage, on the north and east, is hemmed in by another 
far more extended language, which stretches itself from India to the west 
of Europe; and since this comprises several branches, the Indian (Sanscrit), 
old and new Persian, Greek, Latin, Slavic, Gothic, with other Germanic 
tongues, it has been named the Indo-Germanic. In ancient times, the Semi- 
tic exhibited many points of contact with the old Egyptian language ; a de- 
rivate of which is the Coptic. Both had many things in common, but their 





* The oldest passage in the Bible, which contains Aramaean words as such, is 
Gen. 31; 47. Comp. the Aramaean verse in Jer. 10: 11. 


+ See Roediger, in Zeitschrift far die Kunde des Morgenlandes, B. IL. s. 77 f. 


INT. | § 1. sEMITIC LANGUAGES. 3 


mutual relation is not as yet accurately defined.* The Chinese, Japanese, 
Tartar, and other languages, bear an entirely different stamp. ; 


2. The grammatical structure of the Semitic parent-language 
has many peculiarities, which as a whole stamp a distinctive 
character on it, although many single words are found in other 
languages. Such are the following: (a) Among the consonants, 
which generally form the germ and body of this language, are 
many gradations of gutturals. 'The vowels, which spring from 
the three leading sounds (a, 1, w), serve the purpose of subordi- 
nate distinctions. (b) For the most part, the word-stems consist 
of three consonants. (c) The Verbs have but two forms of 
tenses; while there is great regularity and all pervading analogy 
in the formation of verbals. (d) The Noun has only two gen- 
ders, and a very simple designation of cases. (e) The Pronouns 
form all their oblique cases by forms appended to words, (S7f- 
jixes). (f) Almost no composite words exist, either in nouns 
(proper names excepted), or in verbs. (g) In the Syntaz, there 
is a very simple sequency of words, without much periodic sub- 
ordination of clauses. 

4., Ina lexical respect, the storehouse of the Semitic is far 
and essentially remote from that of the Indo-Germanic lan- 
guages; but still, the resemblance is greater in this respect, than 
in a grammatical one. Not a few stem and root words agree, 
in respect to sound, with those of the Indo-Germanic. But 
apart from those expressions that are immediately borrowed, 
‘(see in the sequel), actual resemblance limits itself partly to 

swords imitative of sound, (Onomatopoetica), partly to those 
wherein the same or a like meaning flow from the nature of the 
same sound, according to the general type of human language. 
Neither the one nor the other implies actual historical (national) 
relation; for to the more specific proof of this, an agreement in 
grammatical structure would be necessary. 


* See Ges. in Allgem. Lit. Zeitung, 1839, No. 77 f. 1841, No. 40. Th. Benfey, Ue- 
ber das Verhiltniss der Egypt. Sprache zum Semit. Sprachstamm. Leipzig, 1844. 8vo. 

+ Gesenius, in his later lexical works, has made an attempt to show the points of 
contact between the Semitic and Indo-Germanic stems; and others have carried this 
comparison still further, or have undertaken it in their own way. One cannot well 
deny, indeed, a remote connection between the Semitic and Indo-Germanic languages, 
Investigation by comparison should not therefore become weary, but exercise its pow- 
ers of comparing and deducing; for even the development of concordant Onomato- 


4 §.1. sEMITIC LANGUAGES. [INT. 


Roots of words imitating sounds, which are found in Sanscrit, Greek, 
Latin, and German, are such as PR? W2, Asiyw, lingo, Sanse. lih, lecken, 
[English, lick]; >ba (related D3, dav), xiddw, xthdw, xvddo, valvo, quellen, 
wallen, English to well; Ta, 290, "75, zoouttw, Pers. khariden, Ital. grat- 
tare, French gratter, Engl. to grate, to scratch, kratzen ; p22 , frango, brechen, 
etc. An example of another kind is am, ham, (sam), gam, kam, with the 
meaning of sammt, zusammen [together]. In Hebrew, D2, (related 72x, 
people, properly an assembly), 59 together with, 23 (whence bs moreover), 
Arab. 3723 to assemble; Pers. hem, hemeh, together with; Sansc. amd with, 
Greek dua (dupa), duds, duov, (durdos, duadoc), and with more stress of 
sound xovvos, Lat. cum, cumulus, cunctus, with the corresponding hissing 
sound in Sanscrit, sam, Greek ovy, Evy, Euvdg = xorvos, Gothic sama, Ger- 
man sammt, sammeln ; but still, several of these are attended with considera- 
ble doubt. 


Essentially different from this internal connection is it, when 
languages borrow words from each other, and confer upon them 
the rights of natives. ‘Thus: 


(a) When Indian, Egyptian, or Persian objects are designated, in the He- 
brew, by their native names; e. g. “83 (Egypt. yero) river, Nile; "mx (Egypt. 
ahhi) Nile-reed; O77 = nagadeioos, Persian grove-garden, park; 772375, 
Daricus, Persian gold-coin. Several of these foreign names are transferred 
also to the Greek ; e. g. Ip (Sansc. kapi) ape, in Greek xjm0¢, x780¢; ODN, 
from the Ind. toget (Sansc. sith) peacock ; 0272 (Sansc. karpdsa) cotton, xcg- 
macos, carbasus. 

(6) When Semitic words for Asiatic things have passed over to the Greeks 
along with the things themselves; e. g. y33, BUocos; M222 , AiBarwros, frank- 
incense; MP, xdrn, xuxvve, canna, reed; j17D, xvuivoy, cuminum, Engl. 
cummin. 


5. The writing of the Semitae exhibits a striking imperfec* 
tion in one respect, viz. that only the consonants, (with which 
the meaning of roots is closely allied), are arranged in the line 





poetica has its value for lexicography. But nowhere is deception easier or more fre- 
quent, than in these matters. Much circumspection, and particularly a comprehen- 
sive knowledge of the relation of the sounds in general of both languages, is needed 
for such a work,in order that one may not go astray. As investigation now stands, 
it is almost as important strenuously to distinguish that which has ot in itself all the 
conditions of homogeneousness, as it is to discover what are points of agreement. 
Thus much at least we may regard as a certain result, viz. that the two great parent- 
languages do not stand in any sisterly relation or near kindredship to each other. Besides 
this, it needs an analysis and resolution of the characteristic structure of both lan- 
guages, in order to discover any common constituent elements. Finally, this com- 
parative analysis belongs rather to the lexicon, than to the grammar. 


INT.| § 1. seMITIC LANGUAGES. 5 


as actual letters. On the other hand, merely the more extended 
vowels, and not always even these, are expressed by vicarious 
consonants, i. e. those which are put in the place of vowels, (§ 7). 
In order to exhibit all the vowels to the eye, special small signs, 
attached to the consonants, (viz. points or small strokes over and 
under the line), were introduced at a later period, (§ 8); which 
however, for the more expert readers, might be omitted. Be- 
sides this, the Semitic writing always takes its direction from 
right to left. Only the Ethiopic makes an exception; but this 
was probably an innovation of the first missionaries who intro- 
duced Christianity into Ethiopia; while, at an earlier period, this 
writing, like its counter-part the south Arabian or Himyaritic, 
in like manner as in the other Semitic dialects, originally ran 
from right to left.** For the rest, so unlike as the Semitic alpha- 
bets are as to forms, when compared together, yet they all sprung 
from the same original alphabet, which has undergone various 
adjustments and modifications. The truest picture of the origi- 
nal method of writing, which is now to be found among the al- 
phabets at present extant, is the Phenician; from which the old 
Greek, and through this all the European, writing is derived. 


A view of the Phenician Alphabet, and of the oriental and occidental 
ones that have proceeded from it, may be seen in Gesenius’ Monumenta 
Phenicia (Lips. 1837, Tom. I—III. 4to.) Tab. I—5. Comp. p. 15 seq. Al- 
so the same writer’s Article, Palaeographie, in Ersch and Gruber’s Ency- 
clopadie, § 3. Th. 9, with the Table thereto annexed. 


G. As it respects the relative age of the Semitic languages, 
the oldest works before us are in the Hebrew tongue, (see § 2). 
The Aramaean commences about the time of Cyrus, (in the 
book of Ezra); but the Arabian branch begins its development 
in the centuries immediately after the commencement of the 
Christian era, e. g. in the Himyaritic inscriptions, and afterwards 
in the Aethiopic version of the Scriptures during the 4th cen- 
tury, and in the North Arabian literature since the 6th century. 
But the progress of spoken language among a people, or among 
different tribes, depends on other causes than the development 
of a literature; and oftentimes the complete formation of a lan- 
guage is interrupted before it attains to a literature, by early en- 


* See Roediger in Zeitschr. fiir die Kunde des Morgenl. Bd. I. 8. 332 ff., and_Well- 
sted’s Reisen in Arabia (Halle, 1842) II. 376 ff. 





6 § 1. SEMITIC LANGUAGES. fin. 


counters with nations speaking a strange language. So, within 
the Semitic domain, perished the Aramaean dialects, in great 
part, and at a very early period; and next to these, the Hebrew- 
Canaanitish. Longest of all did the Arabic preserve the natu- 
ral fulness of its forms, since, among the retired tribes of the. 
desert, it could remain at rest and undisturbed in its fully stamp- 
ed organism, until the overturns in consequence of Mohammed- 
ism occasioned a great decline; so that it then, at so late a pe- 
riod, reached about the same stand-point where we find the He- 
brew, in the time of the Old ‘Testament. 


Hence the appearance, (which has erroneously been regarded as some- 
thing quite striking), that the old Hebrew, in its grammatical structure, 
agrees much oftener with the later than with the earlier Arabic. Hence 
too the reason why the last, although it is presented to our notice and ex- 
amination (like the other Semitic languages) at a late period, still maintains 
in various respects the like place among these languages, that the Sanscrit 
holds among the Indo-Germanic tongues. How a language can sometimes 
preserve, within itself and in the midst of perishing sister-tongues, its full 
organism, is shown by the Lithuanian, compared with the appropriately so- 
named Slavish Janguages. In like manner did the Doric, with tenacious 
steadfastness, preserve its old forms and sounds; and so the Friesian and 
Icelandic, among the German and Northern tongues. But even the most 
steadfast and lasting structure of language often wears away, as to particu- 
lar forms, by reason of a propensity in men to new formations; while, on 
the contrary, amidst even the general wreck of a language, here and there 
something original and ancient remains. So is it with the Semitic languages. 
The Arabic has its deficiencies, and its later accessions; but, in general, 
there belongs to it a precedence, specially in regard to the vowel-system. 

A more particular confirmation and further explanation of these matters 
belong to a comparative Grammar of the Semitic languages. From what 
has been said it follows: (1) That the Hebrew language, as it develops it- 
self in the ancient literature of the Hebrews, has suffered more considera- 
ble losses in regard to its organism, than those Arabic dialects which have 
at a Jater period come within the sphere of our observation. (2) That still, 
we are not entitled in all respects to give to this last the preference or pri- 
ority. (3) It must be regarded as an error, when many, on account of the 
simplicity of Aramaeism, hold it to be the oldest among Semitic tongues; 
for this apparent simplivity has been brought about, by the decay of the or- 
ganism of the language and by the contraction of the forms.* 








* In respect to the character and literature of the Semitic languages, and also the 
grammatical and lexical consideration and treatment of them, see Pref. to Gesen. 
. Manual Lex., from the 2nd edit. onward. 


INT.| §2. HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 7 


§ 2. 
Sketch of the history of the Hebrew language.* 


1. The Hebrew language is the mother-tongue of the He- 
brew and Israelitish people, during the period of their inde- 
pendency. The name Hebrew tongue (n7732 13, yloooa roy 
Efoaior, Bgaioc’) occurs notin the O. Test., but appears to have 
been an appellation given to it by foreigners. Instead of this, 
we find, in Is. 19: 18, the language of Canaan (poetic), i. e. it 
is named from the country in which it is spoken. We find 
also in 2 Kings 18: 26 and Neh. 13: 24, nn? (Jewish); comp. 
Js. 36: 11, 13. This last appellation seems to have taken its 
rise after the exile of the ten tribes. The tribe of Judah, which 
was the predominant one of the two remaining tribes, gave 
both the national name, and the name of the national language. 
See the word Jews, in Jer. Neh. Esther. 


The name Hebrews (0°32 , “EGgcto1, Hebraei) is so distinguished from 
Israelites (2877 "22 ), as that the last constitutes the patronymic genealogi- 
cal name, which the people were accustomed to attribute to themselves, 
with patriotic reference to their origin; while the first (Hebrews) is an appel- 
lation bestowed upon the Hebrew nation by foreigners, and is used either 
when a distinction from other nations is intended to be made, (Gen. 40: 15. 
43: 32), or when a foreigner is represented as speaking of the Hebrews, 
(Gen. 39: 14, 17. 41: 12, comp. "722 in the Lex.). On the other hand, 
among the Greeks and Romans this is the only appellation which is em- 
ployed; e. g. by Pausanias, Josephus, and Tacitus. It means, when appel- 
latively understood: T'hose beyond, People from a country beyond ; and tt is 
derived from 933, which means country beyond, in particular the country be- 
yond the Bispheates: The derivative ending "~.(§ 85. 5) is attached to "33, 
and thus makes a gentile or national name. Perhaps it has relation to hs 
fact, that Abraham and his tribe emigrated from the country east of the 
Euphrates, and came to Palestine, Gen, 14: 13. The Heb. genealogies, 
however, seem to regard the name as a patronymic, derived from Eber, 
[Gen. 10: 21—25, the grandson of Shem]; see Gen. 10: 21. Num, 24: 24, 

At the time of the N. Test., Hebrew, (&Sguiori, John 5: 2. 19: 13, 17, 20, 
Goals Sichextos, Acts 21: 40. 22: 2. 26: 14), designated the then Palestine 
dialect, (see No. 5 of this §), in distinction from the Greek. Josephus em- 
ploys the same word in this sense, (about A. D. 95), as also to designate the 
ancient Hebrew. 


* See Gesenius, Geschichte der Heb. Sprache und Schrift; Leips. 1815. §§ 5—18. 


aa 


8 §2. HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. [INT. 


The holy tongue (lingua sancta) was first employed for the like purpose, 
in the Chaldee Targums or translations of the holy books into Chaldee. 
The appellation is employed here in opposition to lingua profana, by which 
the translators meant the Chaldee language. 


2. In the oldest Hebrew writings, as they lie before us, i.e. in 
the Pentateuch, we meet at the outset with the language about in 
the same state in which it appears down to the Babylonish exile, 
and some time after; and all historical notices of its earlier form- 
ation are wanting. ‘So far as we are acquainted with its histo- 
ry, Canaan was its proper home; and before the Hebrews set- 
tled there, it seems for substance to have been spoken by the 
Canaanitish and Phenician nations,* from whom Abraham 
and his posterity received it. Thence it was transplanted by 
the latter to Egypt, and again brought back with them to Ca- 
naan. 


That the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine spoke the language which we 
now call Hebrew, is shown by the fact that the proper names of persons 
and places belong to this language; e. g. PIX "2272 king of righteousness, 
spo mp book-town. [How could such a name be given to a place by the 
Canaanites, unless the art of writing was older than the time of Moses? 
—Ss.] 

Not less accordant with the Hebrew are the remains of the Phenician 
and Punic language. We find these partly in their own peculiar character 
(§ 1. 5), as employed in inscriptions and on coins; partly in the writings of 
the Greeks and Romans, which have preserved many of their words. The 
inscriptions are about seventy in number; see in Ges. Mon. Phenic. Tom. 
Iletab. 6—48, with explanations p. 90—328; see also Plautus’ Poenulus, 
5. 1, 2, which exhibits a continuous piece of the Punic. The native orthog- 
raphy is evident from the monuments; the pronunciation and vocalization, 
from the words as imitated in Latin and Greek. Both together exhibit very 
graphically the nature of the language itself, and its relation to the He- 
brew. 

The most important diversities in orthography and the forms of words, 
are, (1) The almost constant omission of the vowel-letters [Quiescents] ; e. g. 
na for ma, >p for dip; see § 7.2. (2) The fem. forms, even in the abso- 
lute state, ending in ™(§ 79.2) instead of n=. (3) The article is as fre- 





* The name 4935 or "2¥2> (Canaan or Canaanite) was the common domestic 
name both of the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine, and also of those who dwelt on the 
Syrian coast, at the foot of mount Lebanon, whom we call Phenicians. On their 
coins was stamped the name }¥32>. The Carthaginians were called, moreover, by 
the same name. 


INT.| §2. HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 9 


quently expressed by § as by 4, (§32). More striking still is the pronun- 
ciation, especially the Punic. In this, the 1 is predominantly read as «@; 
e. g. UB is pronounced sufét, Wi> salus, 8 (= UNX4) ris. For the short 
i and é we frequently find the obscure obtuse y; e. g. 5227) ynnynnu (ecce- 
eum), mx yth, The Ayin (>) as 0; e. g. "p272 Mocar, (comp. 53372, Sept, 
Moye). See the synopsis of the grammatical peculiarities, in the Mon. 
Phenic. p. 430 seq. 


3. As tothe language of the O. Test. records which are ex- 
tant, we can definitely distinguish only two periods. The first 
reaches to the end of the Babylonish exile, which we name the 
golden age of the Hebrew; the second or silver age commences 
with the end of the exile. 

The first comprises the larger half of the O. Test. books, 
namely the prosaic historic writings of the Pentateuch [includ- 
ing Joshua ?] the books of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and Kings; of 
the poetic, the Psalms (with the exception of a number of the 
later ones), Proverbs, Canticles, Job; the older Prophets in the 
following chronological order, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Mi- 
cah, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Nahum, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezek- 
iel. The last two, who lived and taught a short time before 
and during the first years of the Babylonish exile, and in like 
manner the last part of the book of Isaiah, (chap. 40—66 with 
some preceding ones), stand on the limits of the two ages.* 


The commencement of the period of Hebrew literature in general is doubt- 
less to be assigned to the time of Moses, even in case the Pentateuch, in its 
present form and compass, be the work of later remodeling. For the history 
of the language, and for our purpose, it is sufficient to remark, that the 
Pentateuch undoubtedly has some peculiarities of language which may pass 
for archaisms. The 15 (he, see § 32, note 6), and “33 (young man) are of the 
common gender, and stand also for she, young woman, (like 6 and 7 mais); 
and certain rougher forms of words, such as p¥, Pm, which are com- 
mon here, are exchanged in other books for softer ones, e. g. P21, Pw. 





* [This last statement, as to the so-called Pseudo-Isaiah, is generally acceded to by 
the liberal critics of Germany, and by some of their opponents. The internal evi- 
dence, so far as the diction is concerned, is much against this; and even the critical 
difficulties which such a position involves, amount, after all, to something of grave 
and serious consequence. But this is no place to discuss the question. Hiavernick, in 
his recent Einleitung, has placed the matter in some new attitudes; and I venture to 
suggest, that the question is still somewhat remote from being settled, as Gesenius 
and Roediger suppose, in the manner which the sentence above implies.—S.] 

= . 


10 §2. HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. [INT. 


On the other hand, in Jeremiah and Ezekiel are examples of decided 
approach to the Aramaean hue of the silver age. 


4., Although particular writers and books have their peculiar- 
ities, yet they are not such as enable us to make any very im- 
portant distinctions in respect to the history of the language at 
this period. The time, moreover, when several books were 
composed, particularly the anonymous historical ones, cannot 
be accurately determined. On the other hand, the poetic dialect 
everywhere distinguishes itself from the prosaic one, not merely 
by a rhythmus which consists in measured parallelisms, but also 
by its peculiar words, meaning of words, forms of words, and 
syntactical connections ; although this distinction is not so strik- 
ing, as it is (for example) in the Greek. Most of these poetic 
idioms are to be found in the kindred languages, particularly in 
the Aramaean, where they are ordinary modes of expression, 
and ought to be regarded partly as archaisms which poetry has 
retained, and partly as additions to the stores of the Hebrew, 
which were made by Hebrew poets skilled in the Aramaean lan- 
guage.* In fine, the prophets are almost entirely to be consid- 
ered as poets, in respect to language and rhythm; with the ex- 
ception, that in these poetic orators the sentences frequently are 
carried to a greater length, and the parallelism is less measured 
and regular, than in the poets appropriately so called. The 
language of the later prophets approaches near to that of prose. 


In respect to the Rhythm of the Hebrew poetry, see in particular, De 
Wette, Comm. iiber die Psalmen (4th edit. Heidelb. 1836), Einleit. § 7. 
Also the short sketch of Gesenius, Heb. Lesebuch, Vorerinn. zur 2ten Ab- 
theilung. Comp. H. Ewald, die poet. Bucher des Alt. Test. Th. I. (Gottin- 
gen, 1839). 

Words which are used in poetry, together with others belonging to prose, 
are such as Wi2k = DIN, TIk= III, ON = Nia, Haa— 4. 

To the poetic meaning of words belongs the use of certain poetic epithets 
for nouns; e. g. ""2N, the mighty one, for God; ""S8, mighty, for bull, 
horse ; 23>, white, for moon ; mat", the only, the dearest, for life. 

As to the forms of words, one should note the protracted forms of local 
prepositions (§ 101); e. g. "23-59, "bR—)bN, "J2— 9; the endings 





* That at the time of Isaiah, (second half of the 8th century B. C.), the more ed- 
ucated Hebrews, at least the civil officers, understood the Aramaean, is plainly signi- 
fied in 2 Kings 18: 26, comp. Is. 36: 11. 


INT.| §2. HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 11 


"-, 1+, appended to nouns; the suffixes in, i> jar—, ford, b-, bo, - 
(§33); the plural ending }>~ for D°—, (§86. 1). To the syntax, moreover, 
belongs the much less frequent use of the article, of the relative pronoun, 
and of the Acc, particle §. The const. state also frequently stands before 
prepositions; the shortened or apocopate Imperfect is employed with the 
same meaning as the usual form of the same; and generally, there is an 
intensitive brevity of expression, 


5, The second or silver age of the Hebrew language and lit- 
erature comprises the period reaching from the return out of 
exile [B. C. 536], to the time of the Maccabees (about 160 B. 
C.). It is marked by an approximation of the language to the 
kindred Aramaean (Chaldee) dialect ; to which the Jews resid- 
ing at Babylon had become accustomed the more easily, be- 
cause it approached pretty near to the Hebrew. Even after the 
return from exile, the Aramaean continued in use among the 
Jews; and it had great influence upon the older book-language, 
particularly upon the prose, and gradually expelled it from com- 
mon use, although the knowledge of the ancient language, and 
of compositions written in it, still continued among the learned. 


One may appropriately illustrate the relation between these two lan- 
guages, by a reference to the high and low German in Lower Saxony ; or 
still more exactly, by comparing the high German and the popular dialect 
in South Germany and Switzerland, inasmuch as here the popular dialect 
produces an influence even upon the well educated, in respect to their 
mode of speaking and writing high German. The idea which has become 
current, in consequence of an erroneous interpretation of Neh, 8: 8, is 
quite incorrect, viz., that the Jews, after the exile, entirely forgot their an- 
cient language, and were obliged to learn it from priests and scribes. 


The O. Test. writings belonging to this second period, in all 
of which a Chaldee colouring, although in different degrees, is 
exhibited, are the books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther ; 
Jonah,* Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel. Of the poetic 








* [The book of Jonah is regarded, by the liberal critics in Germany, as a factitious 
romantic production, fabricated at a very late period, and made up of scraps of the 
O. Test. and pieces of tradition. Hence the rank assigned it as above. In the mean 
time, how comes it to be in such a position in the Canon, i. e. among the very oldest of 
the prophets? Why is it not put with Haggai and Malachi? But of what use is argu- 
ment against a priort assumption? For example; ‘first, a miracle is judged to be 
an impossibility. Secondly, the book of Jonah relates several uncommon miracles. 
Therefore, thirdly, it cannot be true, and must have been made up in an age of igno- 
rance and fiction.” ‘Truly a short method of deciding critical questions !—S.] 


12 § 3. TREATISES ON GRAMMAR. [iN'T. 


books, there are Ecclesiastes and the later Psalms. In a litera- 
ry respect these books fall far behind the more ancient ones ; 
but still there are not wanting some productions of this period, 
which in purity of language and aesthetic worth fall little short 
of the golden age. E. g. Psalms cxx. cxxxvIu. CXXXIX. 


Later (Chaldaizing) words, instead of which the earlier writers employ 
others, are, for example, such as bap = mp>, ilo YP, zp Mi) = 722. Ex- 
amples of later meaning are “2x8 to command, 23 (to answer) to address 
any one, to commence speaking. Grammatical peculiarities are, the frequent 
use of the scriptio plena by inserting i and *—; e. g. 1793 (older form 573) ; 
even such cases occur as Tip for wp, a5" for im: also the exchange of 
H— and X— at the end of words, and the frequent use of the noun-ending, 
i, J>> M-, and the like. 

Finally, not all the peculiarities of the later writers are Chaldaisms. Sev- 
eral of them are not found at all in the Chaldee, and must have belonged 
to the Hebrew language at an earlier period, particularly, as it would seem, 
to the North Palestine dialect. ‘There the books of Kings and Canticles 
may have taken their rise. Hence in these older writings we find -¥ for 
“8, which is predominant usage in the Phenician. 

Nore 1. Of dialectical discrepancies in the old Hebrew a few traces are 
found; but they are of little importance, e. g. Judg. 12: 6, according to which 
the Ephraimites seem to have pronounced © like & oro. Also in Neh. 
12: 23, 24, where the dialect of Ashdod (Philistine) is spoken of. 

Nore 2. It cannot well be supposed, that the present remains of the an- 
cient Hebrew Literature have preserved the whole stores of the ancient 
tongue. These must have been of greater compass and copiousness than 
the canonical books of the O. Test. now before us, since only a part of 
the ancient Hebrew literature has been preserved. 


§ 3. 
Grammatical treatises on the Hebrew language.* 


I, After the extinction of the Hebrew language, and the 
completion of the almost contemporary collection of the O. Test. 
books, the Jews began partly to explain their sacred Codex and 
to bestow critical labour upon it, and partly to translate it into 
the then predominant language of the country. The oldest 
translation is thatinto Greek, at Alexandria under Ptolemy Phi- 
ladelphus, which began with the Pentateuch, and was subse- 
quently completed by different authors. This is usually named 





* Consult Gesenius Geschichte der Heb. Sprache, § 19—39. 


INT. ] §3. TREATISES ON GRAMMAR. 13 


the Septuagint. In part, this was executed by persons who had - 
a vernacular knowledge of the original language; and the ob- 
ject of it was, to aid those who spoke the Greek, particularly 
the Alexandrine Jews. Somewhat later, the Chaldee transla- 
tions or 'l'argums (7"2"37) were made, in Palestine and in Baby- 
lonia. The explanations, which were partly drawn from pre- 
tended tradition, have reference almost exclusively to the civil 
and ritual Law and Doctrines, and have as little of a scientific 
character as the remarks on various readings. Both are also 
treated of in the Talmud; the first part of which (the Mishna) 
was composed in the third century, the second (the Gemara) in 
the sixth century after Christ. The Mishna forms the com- 
mencement of the new Hebrew literature; while, on the con- 
trary, the Gemara has more of a Chaldee hue. 

2. In the interim between the conclusion of the Talmud and 
the first grammatical writers, falls, in the main, the vocalization 
of the hitherto unpointed text (§7.3). To the same period 
must we assign the collection of critical remarks, which bears 
the name of Masora (570% tradition); from which, in a form 
prescribed by this, the Hebrew text was continued down by 
Mss., and now constitutes what we name the received text of 
the O. Testament. In reference to the source whence its mod- 
ifications come, it is denominated the Masoretic text. 


One of the most important parts of the Masora is the various readings 
denominated Keri,§17. But one should be on his guard, so as not to con- 
found the work of pointing the text with the compilation of the Masora. 
The former belongs to an earlier period, and it is the fruit of a much more 
thorough labour than that of the Masora. 


3. In the ninth century, after the example of the Arabians, 
were the first beginnings in grammatical compositions made 
on the part of the Jews. ‘The attempts at such composition by 
Rabbi Saadia (7942) are lost; but the works of Rabbi Judah 
Hhayug (named also Abu Zacharia Yahya, about 1040) are still 
extant in Mss.,in the Arabic language; as also of Rabbi Jonah, 
(Abul Walid Mervan ben Gannach, about 1050). Aided by 
these works Abraham ben Ezra (about 1150), and Rabbi David 
Kimchi (about 1190—1200), aequired a classical reputation as 
grammarians. From these first grammarians arose many of 


14 §4. ARRANGEMENT OF GRAMMAR. [IN'T. 


the methodical arrangements and technical terms of grammar, 
which are still in part retained; e. g. the names of the several 
conjugations and of the irregular verbs after the model of >28, 
the mnemonic or memorial words, such as "23733, etc.* 

4. The father of Hebrew grammatical knowledge among 
Christians, was John Reuchlin (¢1522), whose merits in respect 
to Greek literature were also great. He, however, like all gram- 
marians of the following period even down to Buxtiorf (+1629), 
followed almost entirely the Jewish tradition. It is only since 
the middle of the seventeenth century, that the circle of knowl- 
edge in respect to this subject has been enlarged. The study 
of the kindred languages was made very fruitful in results 
which had a bearing upon Hebrew grammar, particularly by 
Albert Schultens ($1750), and by N. W. Schroeder (+1798). 

The labours bestowed upon Hebrew Grammar, so far as they 
are of permanent scientifical value, may be best judged of, when 
one represents the demands now made on those who treat 
grammatically of an ancient language. These may be sum- 
marily represented thus: (1) One must notice in the most com- 
plete and accurate manner possible the phenomena of a lan- 
guage still extant; and then these must be represented in an 
organic connection. (This is the empirical or historico-critical 
element). (2) He must endeavour to explain these facts, partly 
by a comparison among themselves and by analogy with kin- 
dred languages, and partly by the general principles of the phi- 
losophy of language. (This is the philosophic or rational ele- 
ment). 


§ 4. 
Division and Arrangement of Grammar. 


The divisions and arrangement of a Hebrew Grammar are 
obvious, by reason of the three constituent parts of every lan- 
guage; viz. (1) Articulate sounds expressed by letters, and the 
connection of them in syllables. (2) Words. (3) Sentences. 

The first part (elementary science) contains, in accordance 
with this, instruction respecting the sounds, and the designation 





* On the rise and ancient history of Hebrew lexicography, see Pref. to Ges. Lex. 
edit. [V.s.X. f. Respecting the first grammarians, see Sam. David Luzzato, Proleg. 
ad una Gramm. ragionata della lingua Hebraica, (Padova, 1836), p. 26 seq. 


INT. | § 4. ARRANGEMENT OF GRAMMAR. 15 


of them by /etters. It also teaches the manner of uttering the ° 
sounds represented by the letters (orthoépy); the customary 
method of writing (orthography) ; and then considers the sounds 
as connected in syllables and words, and explains the laws and 
conditions under which this connection can take place. 

The second part (the doctrine of forms) treats of words in 
their quality as parts of speech; and it contains, (1) Rules for 
the formation of words, or the rise of the several parts of speech 
out of the roots, or out of one another. (2) Rules for declining 
words (flexion) in the various forms which they take, according 
to their relation to each other, and to the sentence. 

The third part, (Syntax, or the junction of words), has for its 
object to show, partly how the different flexions of words exist- 
ing in a language are employed in designating different ideas 
and those of delicate shades, and how other ideas, for which the 
language has coined no appropriate forms, are expressed by cir- 
cumlocution; partly, moreover, to give the rules according to 
which the parts of speech are connected together in sentences. 
(‘These last are called sentence-rules, or syntax in the narrower 
sense of the word). 





Wh c tae! pt ol 
ph ach att on 
oe wa eke 


















- 7"! 
- 
é 
is. .s 
oe ee 


- 


a | 


> 
a” fi 
ie. 


sho) 
Lorn 


= 













igre 

¥ 4] i 

i ee aes OD, 
' . paivic? ie) A a os ay 
« Jaga ij 4. 
a aie ait deka See pat ae wi a 
| 


inna ei mer sna a waka mr ree i a 







——* 

ie ~~ 
oa 
a | 





ie Ruan ee ire cette n>. vacant vent aE a 
P ie Aes etn ee bite arbi haf poset ie ib scp ie fae x 
ies Sa ki AH pCR, be eae 
5 ; yy ‘inl Ay \ suits ik i re F 
wie fy Mik iid We ve : rile 
re, a ba mal ‘ a, k 
a ‘ * ¢ | ; i 


Sy ae ite 4 ‘gait: ye 
te pri ~ ha 


ie i i wht oa yet 2 im 


f ray arf A it nee 4h 
bate ced ca 
con RO ge OR 
OE aM Ag i 

on ox eas o Poway “A my dae su nts el 
aan ei Ne) eal 


FIRST PRINCIPAL DIVISION. 


ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 


CHAP’PFER I, 


OF WRITTEN SIGNS OR LETTERS, AND THEIR VOCAL SIG- 
NIFICANCE. 


§ 5. ' 
Of the Consonants. Form and Name. 


1. The Hebrew characters in present use, in which the man- 
uscripts of the Old Testament are written, commonly called the 
square character, also the Assyrian character, are not original. 
On the coins of the Maccabaean princes is found a different 
character, which very probably was in general use for writing 
the Hebrew at an early period, and has a strong resemblance to 
the Samaritan character, and of course to the Phenician (§ 1, 5). 
The square character may also be traced back to the Phenician ; 
but for the most part it harmonizes with certain Aramaean in- 
scriptions on monuments found in Egypt, as also with those of 
the Palmyrene monuments. 


See the Alphabets of these kinds of writing, in Ges. Monum. Phenic., 
tab. 1—5. 


2, The Alphabet consists, like all Semitic ones, of consonants 
only. ‘These are twenty-two in number; some of them having 
occasionally the power of vowels, (§ 7, 2). The forms, sounds, 
names, and numerical value, are exhibited in the following 
table : 

3 





18 
Form. inc ts 
N N 
eae] bh,b 
Am gh, g¢ 
ete: dh, d 
v1 h 
’ Vv 
) Z 
nM hh 
ts 
25-5, (4)| kh, k 
a 
0,(0) |m 
5) n 
re S 
y y 
5,2. (5) ph, p 
sy (Y) ts 
r q 
> r 
w sh 
w 
nin th, t 


§ 5. ALPHABET. 











Tiaos sl ebreyrs repr seeaia Wp 
558 |nalé ph 
v,b | ma |Beth 

g aa Gimél 
{hand] M55 /Daleth 
h Nv |He 

Vv |Vav 

Z 773 |Zayin 
hh | m*n/Hheth 
t(hard)} MQ Tet 

y 37° |Yodh 
kh,k| )2|Kaph 

| | 0b |Lamédh 
m Qi |Mém 

n 773 |Nan 

8 j20 Samékh 
“0 BIpayin 
f,p NE |Pe 

ts eda 4 Tsadeé 
q | AAP Qoph 
r w7|Reésh 
sh | 70 |Shin 

s 77 |Sin 

th, t M1 I'Tay 


and sounded as 
Aw-léf 
Baith- 
Geé-mél 
Daw’-léth 
Hay 

Vawv 
Za-yin 
Hhaith 
Taith 
Yoadh 

Kat 
Law'-médh 
Maim 
Noon 
Saw-mékh 
A-yin 

Pay 
Tsaw-dhéy 
Qoaf 
Raish 
Sheen 

Seen 


Tawy 


Numerical 
value, 


1 
2 
3 
4 
9) 
6 
7 
8 
9 


10 


100 
200 
300 


400 


§ 5, FORM AND NAME OF CONSONANTS. 19 


3, Five letters have a form, when final or standing at the end. 
of a word, different from the form elsewhere; viz.4, 5, 4,5, 7- 
In the alphabet above, these are included in a parenthesis ; and 
they are technically named finales, i. e. final letters ; the Hebrews 
call them 72222 (kam-nap-péts), a mere vox memorialis. 

[It is plain that these final letters would assist the reader much, in an- 
cient times, when no division or space was left between words in writing. 
This circumstance probably gave rise to the invention of them.—S.] 


4., Hebrew is read from right to left. “Words are not broken 
at the end of a line (as in English) ; but to fill out such spaces 
as must often occur, certain letters are dilated (dilatabiles) ; viz. 
the following five: 


Lat bat to Lo, fT, SX, (technically named on>ns). 


(1) The figures of the letters were originally rapid and abbreviated sketches 
of sensible objects, the name of which began with the letter designated. 
E. g. 7, (\, the rough figure of a camel’s neck, properly means camel 
(bron = 523); but as a letter, it merely means 3. So O, properly eye, 52, 
but the letter > stands for merely the first sound in this word. In the Phe- 
nician alphabets, the similitude of the figures to the objects after which they 
are named, is, for the most part, still discernible; and in the square alpha- 
bet this is preserved in respect to several of the letters, e. g. 1, >, 7, v. 

The most probable meaning of the names of the letters is as follows: 
DX ox, MZ house, 525 camel, M23 door, NF air-hole, window, ‘5 hook, 371 
weapon, mm hedge, m°2 winding, perhaps leather-pouch, (al. serpent), 47" 
hand, 5D crooked hand, 3700 ox-goad, 0° water, j32 fish, 7720 prop, }72 eye, 
XB mouth, "3x fish-hook, Fp hinder-head, 77 head, j*v tooth, 1m cross- 
sign. 

Certain as it is that the Semitae first constructed this alphabet, yet, on 
the other hand, it is quite probable, that the Egyptian writing (the so-called 
phonetic hieroglyphics) served as the exemplar of it in respect to the princi- 
ple concerned with its construction, although not as to the forms of the let- 
ters; for these hieroglyphics designate, not objects themselves by sketches 
like to those in kyriological hieroglyphics, but only the commencing sounds 
of their names; e. g. the hand (tot) represents the letter t, the lion (/abot) the 
letter 1.* 





* See the writings of Young, Champollion, etc., respecting the hieroglyphics. A 
view of the principal results is given by Lepsius, Lettre a M. Rosellini sur l’Alpha- 
bet hieroglyphique. Rom. 1837, 8. Comp. Gesenius, in Allgem. Litt. Zeit. 1839. 
No. 77—81. Hitzig, die Erfindung des Alphabets. Zurich, 1840. fol. J. Olshausen, 
(ber den Ursprung des Alphabets. Kiel, 1841, 8. 


20 § 5. ORDER AND NUMERICAL VALUE OF LETTERS. 


(2) The order of sequency in the alphabet was originally determined, in 
part, by a grammatical consideration of the sounds. This is plain from the 
continuous succession of the three softest Labials, Palatals, and Dentals, 
3,4, 3; then the three Liquids, >, 2, 2; and other like arrangements. 
(See Lepsius, Sprachvergleichende Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1836, No. 1). 
But other influences have also operated in respect to this matter. Surely 
it is not the result of mere accident, that hand and hollow hand (", 3), hinder- 
head and head (>, “), water and fish (2, 5), eye and mouth (3, 5), are ranged 
together. Both the order and the names of the alphabet of the Phenicians 
passed from them over to the Greeks, with slight variations, [and some ad- 
ditions necessary to complete the phonetics of the latter]. 

[The number (22) and order of Hebrew letters are settled by the alphabetic composi- 
tions of the O. Test., viz. Ps. 25. 34. 87. 111. 112. 119. 145. Prov. 31: 10 seq. Lam. 
i—iy. In Ps. 25. 34. 145, one letter is omitted; in Ps. 27, s is repeated and ¥ omit- 
ted. The separation of ~ into © and ‘¢ was later than the period of the early alpha- 
bet-—Several names of the letters exhibit forms of words that must have been more 
ancient than the Hebrew of the O. Test.; e. g. b22, m>7, 72, 7220, ete. Segholate 
forms very rare in the Hebrew Scriptures. So also rae 7 —S.] 

(3) The Hebrews have no numeral cyphers, like ours, but employ conso- 
nants to designate numbers. This usage, however, belongs not to the O. 
Test. of itself. We can trace it no farther back than the coins in the time 
of the Maccabees, (about 150 B. C.) But at a later period, all chapters and 
verses of the O. Test. came to be marked or numbered in this way; in like 
manner as enumeration was designated by the Greeks. (a) The alphabet 
from X—» designates the units 1—9; (b) From "—x, tens; from p—n, 
some of the hundreds, viz. 100—400. The hundreds 500—900, some desig- 
nate by the final letters, 4, 5, 4,5, 73 others by adding to m (= 400) the 
other letters that designate the additional hundreds which are needed, e. g. 
pn, i. e, 400 + 100 = 500. In composite numbers, the larger stand first; 
e. g. N= 11, Nop = 121, ete. The number 15 is marked 1» = 9+ 6, 
because the regular designation would be m, which (being one of the names 
of God) the Jews would not employ. Thousands are designated by the 
unit-letters with two points above them; e. g. § — 1000, etc. 

(4) No abbreviations of words occur in the text of the O. Test.; but they 
are found on coins. In later times the use of them is very frequent among 
the Jews. When they are employed, they are marked by an oblique stroke ; 
e. g. ‘iy == PRD 5 ugh = “"a'iai, i. e. et completio — etc; and in like way, 
“3 or 9 for mm". 


§ 6. 
Pronunciation and Division of the Consonants. 


1. A more exact insight into the original sound of each con- 
sonant is of the greatest importance, because many grammatical 


§ 6. SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS. 21 


peculiarities and changes ($18 seq.) are dependent on the pro- | 
nunciation, and are comprehensible only in this way. We ob- 

tain our knowledge of this, partly from the pronunciation of the 

kindred dialects; partly from the living Arabic; partly from ob- 

serving the approximation of certain letters to each other and 

their exchange for one another; and partly from the tradition of 

the Jews.* 


In the usages of the modern Jews, there is much that is contradictory. 
The Polish and German Jews follow the analogy of the Syriac; the Span- 
ish and Portuguese Jews, (who, after the manner of Reuchlin, most Chris- 
tians follow), more correctly Jean to the Arabic. 

The oldest and most weighty testimony in regard to pronunciation, is the 
Hebrew proper names as exhibited by the Septuagint, i. e. the Hebrew 
written in Greek letters, But the sounds of several Hebrew letters, e. g. 
>, W, could not be imitated in Greek; and of course various expedients 
were resorted to, in order to relieve this difficulty. 


2. Several consonants which have peculiarities, should be 
compared as to their resemblances of sound, and specially in- 
vestigated. 


(1) Among the Gutturals, & is the most slender. It is a scarcely audible 
impetus of the voice from the lungs, = the spiritus lenis of the Greeks. It 
is like to the ©, but is more slender. Before a vowel it is almost lost to the 
ear, (28, auag), like the h in the French habit, homme. Still more imper- 
ceptible is it after a vowel, and indeed it altogether coalesces with it, (Nx72 
md-tsd), § 23, 2. 

The 5 before a vowel — our slender A, (like the Greek spiritus asper); after 
a vowel, at the end of a syllable, (when not quiescent), it is a Guttural — 
our stronger A, e. g. 3272 neh-pakh ; but when quiescent (like &) it coalesces 
with the vowel, § 7, 2. § 14. 

Nearest related to & is 3, a letter peculiar to the Semitae. When the 
stronger sound is given, it is a kind of hoarse quavering g sound, formed in the 
back part of the palate; as in M7az Touogsa, HI Tata; the weaker sound 
is almost like that of the 8, as in "23 “Hid, P22 *Auadéx. In the mouth of 





* Accurate physiological observation of the whole system of sounds, and the for- 
mation of them by the organs of speech, performs an important service here. See 
Liskovius, Theorie der Stimme, Leipz. 1814. J. Miiller, Handbuch der Physiologie, 
Bd. IL. s. 179 ff. Also Strodtmann, Anatomische Vorhalle zur Physiologie der Stim- 
me und Sprachlaute, Alt. 1837, 4. With reference to Grammar, see H. Hupfeld 
yon der Natur und den Arten der Sprachlaute, in Jahn’s Jahrbb. f. Philol. Bd. LX. 
1829. H. 4. H. E. Bindseil, Abhandlungen zur allgem. vergleichenden Sprachlehre 
(Hamb. 1839), I. Physiologie der Stimm-und Spracklaute, s. 1 ff. 


22 § 6. SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS. 


the Arabian, [who has divided it into two letters], the first sound is like a 
slender guttural r; the.second is almost like that of a simple vowel, e. g. a. 
At present, Europeans, in reading Hebrew, do not aim to imitate it, but 
merely sound the vowel which follows or precedes it; as in Eli, Amalek 
above. A method of expressing the stronger sound by our letters, which 
comes nearest to the correct one, would be by gh or rg. [This means a 
deep guttural, or a quavering guttural sound]. But 9 is not so strong; so 
that we might represent 225% by ar-bag", may by "g“mo-ra. Altogether 
erroneous is the Jewish mode of uttering the letter by a nasal gn or ng. 

The mn is the firmest Guttural — ch, [Eng. hh], as the Swiss pronounce it; 
e. g. in Macht [nearly mahht], Zucht (nearly zuhht], aud like to the Spanish 
guttural x and j, [i. e. = hh]. In the living language, this letter, [as in the 
Arabic], was sometimes sounded stronger, and sometimes weaker.* 

The Hebrews, moreover, sounded the " more as a quavering Guttural, than 
as a tremulous Lingual. On this account," is not merely reckoned with 
the Liquids, but, as to several of its qualities, it is assigned to the rank of 
the Gutturals; § 22, 4. 

(2) In Sibilants or hissing letters the Hebrew is richer than the Aramaean ; 
which substitutes for them in part the low broad Linguals. 

The letters » and © were originally one and the same, © = sh. They 
are still so in writings without the vowel-points. But inasmuch as this let- 
ter not unfrequently had a more slender sound, almost = s, so the gramma- 
rians separated the one sound from the other, by the diacritical points, viz. 
y= sh, p= s. 

w in its sound must have approached quite near to 0; yet, being nearly 
related to 8, it might have been somewhat stronger than 0. At least, a 
difference of meaning is sometimes grounded on the difference between 
and 0; e. g. “20 to shut up, and “20 to recompense ; dow to be dextrous or 
wise, and >20 to be foolish. 'The Syrians used, for these two sounds of s, 
only the letter 5 (_g); the Arabians merely Ue" In later Hebrew they are 
often exchanged; e. g. "29 = 72 to buy, Ez. 4:5; msd20 and mabsy folly, 
Eee, 1: 17. 

Zayin (+) is a slender whizzing s —the Greek ¢, (which the Septuagint 
employ to represent it), and like the French and English z, and quite differ- 
from the German z = ts. 

The letters 0, —, ¥, are uttered with strong articulation from the back 
part of the mouth. The first two are separated in this way, essentially, from 





* In Arabic, diacritical points separate the stronger and weaker sounds of y and 5 ; 
and so each letter is, in their alphabet, divided into two, viz. » into & Ain and the 


stronger é Ghain, m into the slender ad Tha and the harder (a Kha. Besides this, 


the Arabians mark variation, in the like way, in the sounds of 7, », x. 


§ 6. ASPIRATED CONSONANTS. 23 


mand > which correspond to our ¢ and k, and moreover are often softened , 
still more by aspiration, (see No. 3 below). [The x Roediger marks, in the 
Alphabet as = ss strongly enunciated. Gesenius, and nearly all Hebrew 
grammarians, represent it by ts or the German z. This seems altogether 
more probable than the sound assigned it by Roediger, considering that the 
Hebrew alphabet has (besides this) at least three s-es, viz. 0, ©, U, and on- 
ly one z, 1. I have therefore retained ¢s in the alphabet above.—S.] 


3. Six Consonants, *, 5, 5,4, 3,3, (technically named 722732 
Beghadh-kephath) have a double sound; (1) Like 3b, g, d, k, p, 
t. (2) A weaker sound accompanied with a slight breathing 
or spiritus; (then called Aspirates). The first sounds (unaspi- 
rated) are the originalones. ‘These sounds are employed at the 
beginning of words and syllables, when not immediately pre- 
ceded by a vowel; and they are marked by a point in the bo- 
som of the letter (e. g. 2=5, etc.), which is named Daghesh 
lene, (§ 13). The aspirated pronunciation is employed, when 
a vowel immediately precedes, [which vowel may be either 
pure, or have a quiescent letter coalescing with it. The aspi- 
rated sounds are represented by bh or v, gh, dh (= th in that), 
kh, ph, and th.] 


In Mss., Raphe (§ 14. 2) stands over these letters when they are Aspi- 
rates; in printed editions, the Daghesh lene is merely omitted, [by which 
omission the reader knows, of course, that they are Aspirates]. [By one 
who speaks the English language, 3—= gh and > = kh can hardly be pro- 
nounced in a different way from ;—g and >—k. The-modern Greek 
easily aspirates £, y, 0; and we easily sound dh, as directed above. The 
Greek language, moreover, easily distinguishes 3, 5; 5, D; M, M3; e.g. as 
=, 7%; 1,9: 1, 4 But we have no sound, in English, corresponding to 
2=kh. The Germans practically make it a Guttural in sound; which can 
hardly be correct. But the true sound we have no adequate means of as- 
certaining.—S. } 

See more particulars about the distinction of the two sounds, in § 2]. 
The modern Jews pronounce 3 as =v, and the aspirated nm like s; e. g. 
m*wRxI = reshis [which is manifestly wrong], 23 —rav. The m seems to 
be exactly the English th soft. 

4. From what has now been said, a division of the conso- 
nants, based upon the organ specially employed to utter them, 
becomes more intelligible and more useful. ‘They are thus ar- 
ranged : 


24 §6. CLASSES OF LETTERS. 


(a) Gutturals % 6 Mm 3 technically called SMS 
(b) Labials en. de pais 
(c) Dentals Fi Qoy8 Soowaty) woot 
(d) Linguals Rate lb ok in rapt 
(e) Palatals BG 2 le p23 


Of these, the class most frequently appealed to is the Gutturals ; and 
therefore the student should make them familiar. The letter 7 is ranked 
above with the Dentals. But it is often weated as a Guttural, having fre- 
quently the like effect upon the vocalization; as will be seen in the sequel. 


[Besides these classifications, some others, on a little different 
ground, are frequent and practically important, viz. (1) The 
Liquids, i. e. >,2,3,9. (2) The Quiescents, i. e. 8,5, 1,75 
which are so called, because their sound frequently quiesces or 
coalesces in that of the vowel which precedes them. ® and 
are practically Gutturals, only when they do not quiesce.—S.] 

A historical view of the pronunciation of the Hebrew, and also of the 
other Semitic languages, would show, that in more ancient times the enun- 
ciation was stronger and firmer; in later ones it flatted away and became 
weaker and softer. By reason of this, not a few of the earlier and minuter 
distinctions, attached to modes of pronouncing, were neglected and lost. 
This shows itself, partly in the substitution of weaker for stronger letters, 
e. g. earlier P2¥, later P21, comp. Syr. pyr, (§ 2. $3); and partly in the 
mode of pronouncing particular letters. So in the Syriac, » is throughout 
only a feeble and soft sound. The Galileans uttered both » and mas they 
did &, [i. e. they were scarcely audible]. In Aethiopic, 8 —s, andm —h, 
i, e. each is of a slender sound. 


§ 7. 
Vowels in general; Vowel-Letters and Vowel-Signs. 


J. That the leading tones of the vowels a, e, i, 0, vu, sprung 
from the original vowels A, J, U, is more plain in Hebrew and 
in the Semitic languages, than in any other. EL comes from I 
with preceding short a; and O from U in the same way. Both 
E and O are strictly contracted diphthongs; for é comes out of 
ai, and 6 out of au. . The process may be thus represented : 





§7. VOWELS. 25 


The older Arabic did not employ the vowels é and 6, but instead of them 
employed ai, au; e. g. 92, Arab. bain; Dis, Arab. yaum [i.e. youm]. La- 
ter idiom contracted these diphthongs. The like in Greek and Latin; as 
Kaicao, Caesar, Fatuo, Ion. Faue. So with the French ai and au [= é, 
6]; and so the popular dialect in German, éch for auch. 


2. With this stands connected the designation of the vowels 
in writing. As there were only three leading vowel-sounds, so 
no more were originally designated ; and even this was done, 
not by inventing new and appropriate signs, but by employing 
some of the feebly sounding letters, e. g. 8, 1, 7, for this purpose, 
because their weak sounds easily flowed into the vowel sounds. 
[In respect'to their frequency, as thus employed, and the sounds 
which they represented, they may be thus arranged :] 


1 represented U and O. 
= ‘ I and EH. 
x “ A, 


Expianations. (a) [Vav (4) thus employed, resembles the old Latin V 
and the old German W, often used as the vowel U ; and Yodh (*) the old 
Latin I, used for both ITand Y. In English, also, Y is both vowel and con- 
sonant. The comparative frequency of thus employing these letters is ex- 
pressed by the order of their arrangement above. Vav is somewhat fre- 
quently inserted as a mere vowel; Yodh, in the same way, but with rather 
less frequency ; and ®& is altogether rare as standing merely for A, because 
this vowel is so frequent that it was easily and naturally supplied by the 
reader].* 

(b) Besides the use of these three vowel-letters, (so called when put for a 
vowel), He (mn), at the end of a word, was usually employed for the vowel 
A long; and much less frequently, &, in the same way. But both of these 
letters, 8, 4, sometimes stand for the vowels E, O. Only familiarity with 
the language could readily distinguish these diverse cases, 

(c) Regularly, the vowel: letters represented only the long vowels. But the 
reader must not suppose, that these letters were always actually inserted 
where long vowels actually occurred. This would be far from the reality 
of the case; for in general only the more doubtful cases were thus distin- 
guished ; see §8. 4.+ All the other gradations of tone, viz. the short vowels, 








* So in the Sanscrit, and old Persian Keil-character; and in the Aethiopié, short 
a is not designated, because, if a consonant has no other vowel-mark, & of course be- 
longs to it. 

Tt The Phenician hardly ever employs vowel-letters at all; and specially the oldest 
monuments have scarcely any designation whateyer of them. See Mon. Phenic. p. 
57, 58. Comp. § 2. 2 above. 


4 


26 §7. VOWELS. 


the absence of yowels, and the decision whether one of the above letters was 
employed as a vowel or a consonant, were left to the skill and judgment of 
the reader. [In like manner, all the current Arabic writing and correspond- 
ence of the present time is destitute of any vowel-signs, and these are left to 
the reader, excepting the small aid which the vowel-letters occasionally af- _ 
ford.] E. g. byp might be read: qa-tal, qa-tél, qa-tol, q®-tol, q6-tél, qit-tél, 
qat-tél, qiit-tal. So "25 might be read: da-bhar (word), dé-bhér (pestilence), 
dib-bér (he spake), dab-bér (to speak), d6-bhér (speaking), dtib-bar (it is 
said). So mia, ma-véth (death), math, moth (to die). The like in #93, which 
is bén, bin, ba-yin, etc. [The exigency of the sense guided the reader in all 
such cases. ] 

(d) It is easy to see how imperfect and exposed to various interpretations 
a method of writing was, which designated only the stronger’ elements of 
speech. Yet such an one, and such only, of the vowels without any pro- 
per designation, had the Hebrews, during the whole period when Hebrew 
was a living language. Reading was of course a much more difficult task 
than it is among us, inasmuch as we have a much more perfect alphabet. 
A vernacular knowledge of the language could make up, in some good 
measure, for these deficiencies ; [just as we can read short-hand characters, 
and, after a little practice, could easily read most words in case the vowels 
were omitted in the writing.] 

3. After the Hebrew language had ceased to be a living 
one, and there was danger of losing the true pronunciation, and 
moreover because the doubtful meaning of unpointed words of- 
ten became perplexing, in order to render plain and establish 
both of these, the Vowertn-siens or VoOWEL-POINTS were in- 
vented’ In this way, whatever remained undetermined before, 
became permanently established. The particular history of this 
is indeed wanting; but by a combination of other historical facts 
we come to the conclusion, that of the Christian era, the sys- 
tem of vocalization was introduced, since the seventh century, by 
learned Jews well acquainted with the language. This exam- 
ple, it is probable, was followed by the Syrian and Arabian , 
grammarians. 

See Ges. Gesch. d. Heb. Sprache, s. 182 ff, and Hupfeld in Theol. Stu- 
dien und Kritiken, 1830. No. 3; where may be found the latest proof, that 
the Talmud and Jerome make no mention of yvowel-signs. 

4., The pronunciation of the Palestine Jews probably lies at 
the ground of the vowel-system; but the analogy of the sister 
dialects is a good voucher for the correctness of the same, at 
least in the main or generally. The Punctators laboured to 


§8. VOWEL-SIGNS. 27 


express all the little gradations of the vowel-sounds, by appro- - 
priate signs; and even the half-vowels and the involuntary help- 
ing-sounds, which all languages adopt but do not usually ex- 
press by writing, are carefully noted in the Hebrew. During 
the same modeling of the text of Scriptures, came in also the 
various reading-signs, (Daghesh, Mappiq, etc. §11—14); as 
also the Accents, § 15. § 16. 

Far more simple is the apparatus for the vowels among the Arabians and 
Syrians. The former have only three signs, according to the ancient classi- 
fication as described above ; the latter, five, viz. a, e, 7, 0, u. This may have 
been the case with the earlier. Hebrews ; but the evidences of it are not 


within our reach, 
Sd 


§8. 
Of the Vowel-Signs. 
I, The complete vowels, arranged agreeably to their leading 
sounds, are as follows: 
First Class; A sound. 
(a) — Qaméts = a, d; as 7 yadh, DR qam. (Eng. a in all.) 


(b) — Pattah = 4; as in m2 bath. (Eng. a in man.) 
(c) —, Seghdl = @ (Eng. ai in sail, only shorter), when this 


Sechél is derived from an original a; e. g. in the first syllable 

of 322 ma-lékh. A Seghol of this kind often stands before a 

quiescent Yodh (*); as in 9°) yd-dhi-kha, 52°23 geli-na, sound- 

ed as above. 
Second Class; I and E sounds. 

(a) »— or — —T long, (like the Eng. 7 in machine), e. g. 
oc» sim, and (with the Yodh omitted) ="p3" tsad-di-gim. 
This is called Hhireq magnum, whether the Yodh is ex- 
pressed or only implied. 


(b) — short J, (Eng. 7 in sit), e. g. 788 wmmé ; named Hhi- 
reg parvum. 
(c) s—, and —,=@, 2, (Eng. ey and ai as in they, hai- 


nous); e. g. M2 beth, 28 shém; called Tsere with Yodh, and 

E) Tsere without Yodh. 
(d) —, S¢ghdl = e obtuse and short, as yx3 shen (Eng. e in 
men) ; also € with tone, as in MIM hhdzé (ey in the Eng. prey).* 





* |That some confusion attends this classification, is evident. Gesenius ranks Se- 


28 §8. voWEL-SIGNs. 


Third Class; U and O sounds. 
(a) 5 Shireq — v% (Eng. 00 in book), e. g. ma mith. 

— Qibbiis, usually % short (Eng. bth full) ; e. g. MBS 
ms is iat oftentimes, also, it stands for Shtréq without 
Vay, ie. Shiireq a little abridged, as in "rr2 muthi. 
(c) § and — Hhélem, i.e. Hhélem with * i. e. impure, and 
Hhélém without ‘i.e. pure ;* e. g.>ip gal, 39 rdbh. (Eng. 6 
in slow, sober) . 

(2) — Qaméts Hhatiph = 0 short; e. g. “pm hhog. (Eng. 
0 in not). 

[Remark. Roediger adds to this last class of sounds, that of abridged e (—) 
when it arises out of an original u oro ; as in BEN altem (from DAMN, §33. 
n. 4), and mx éth (from mix). These cases are so very few, (and withal at- 
tended by some doubt), that I have deemed it best not to sokleeg ) this cate- 
gory with the usual vowel sounds]. 

The names of the vowels are nearly all made out from the manner in 
which the mouth is affected in pronouncing them; as is usual among Sem- 
itic grammarians. E. g. yap Qaméts, closing (the mouth); mmp Pattahh, 
opening; Pn Hhiréq, grating; "7x Tséré (also “23¥) tearing open; ppv 
Shiréq, whistling, a hissing; yrap Qibbuats, compressing ; bbin, Hholém, 
fullness, (also DAD 8572 full mouth); 912m yap Qaméts Hhatiph, i. e. short 
Qamets = 6. The reason why the same form (~) represented both d long 
and 6 short,t is to be drawn from the impure sound given by the Rabbins 


oO” 
5 


il, 
c 
of 





ghol as in m3*53, Class I. ¢ above, under d of Class II; while Roediger ranks it as 
above, on the alleged ground of its arising out of a. Gesenius puts down wip as one 
example of short @ (Seghol) ; while in such forms it is a mere assumed euphonic and 
helping sound, and no proper vowel; and Roed. exhibits 55 for the same purpose. 
Ges. omits such cases of Seghol as occur in forms like mth ; Roed. merely says, that 
they are é accented ; allowing nothing for the Quiescent 5. It is quite plain, that this 
matter is not cleared up by either writer. Seghol ( (—), like most of our vowels, is 
double-timed. Without a Quiescent either expressed or ‘implied, i.e. without a® ora 
nm after it, it is short; when coalescent with these letters, i. e. quiescent in them, it is 
virtually long; in a Segholate form (e. ¢. % wap) it is a mere euphonic slide of the voice 
joining two consonants together. Doubtless, 4 in the living pronunciation of the lan- 
guage, some slight differences of sound, either in quality or intensity, belonged to each 
of these Seghols. It is in vain, now, to seek for their recall—S.] 

* [In not a few cases, 4 is a mere vowel-sign for O, and then the Hholém (4) is pure, 
i. e. does not coalesce with the 4; e. g. Inf. binp getol. Ina great majority of cases, 
Hholém with Vay (1) is impure, i. e. coakeseet with the 4. Familiarity with the lan- 
guage is the only thing that will enable the student to ith yttath the cases from one 
another.—S.| 

+ Some suppose Qamets was originally written —, and Qamets Hhatuph —, and 
that through negligence these came to be written alike. But these two were identical 
in meaning; the first is the original one; the second, derived from it. 


§S. VoWEL-sIGNs. 29 


to the vowel —, like the Swedish a. [Admitting the Spanish Rabbinic 
sound of — long, like @ in all, (which I can hardly doubt is correct), the 
near approximation of this to the O sound is very plain; and as Hholem 
already represented two O’s, so, in certain peculiar circumstances, = was 
chosen to represent short 6]. For the cases where it is to be read as 6, see 
§9. Note. Only Seghdl (5420) borrows its shape from resemblance to an 
object, as the name means cluster of grapes. All the names give the sound 
of the vowel in the first syllable, excepting S¢ghdl, Qibbits, and Qaméts 
Hhatoph. 

2. Nearly all the vowel-signs stand under the letter, after 
which they are pronounced; e. g. 7,1, 7, 7, ete. The so-called 
Pattah furtive, however, under a Guttural at the end of a word, 
is sounded before it; e. g. 7 ru*hh, see § 22. 2. b. Hholem is 
written over the letter ; e. g. 2 mo, 2 mo; Shureq, in the bosom 
of the Vay, as 1 mi. 

(a) In some cases, Hholem coincides with the diacritical point over 8, wv, 
and then it is not separately noted; e. g. MU mé-shé, N2W sd-né. When 
Shin has two points, and begins a syllable, the left one is Hholem, e. g. “ait 
shé-mér ; when it has two, and ends a syllable, the right point is a Hholem, 
e. g. WET yir-pds. ; 

(b) The figure 5, in different positions, the Vav being a proper consonant, 
is read ov or vo; e. g. 71> Ld-ve, jz d-von. In the first case the Hholem be- 
longs to the preceding syllable; in the second, it follows the Vav conso- 
nant. The latter, fully written, would be 71>. Very nice pointing would 
distinguish the different cases by the position of the Hholem, the first on the 
right, the second on the left of the top of the 1, and a third (= 0 simply) 
over the middle. But this is hardly practicable with types. 

3, The first class of vowels are usually accompanied or 
marked by no vowel letters (§'7, 2); excepting “= in the middle, 
n=, X=, at the end, of a word; the other classes usually desig- 
nate their long vowels by the accompaniment of a vowel-letter 
or Quiescent. 'Thus + Hhireq magnum, *~ Tsere, ~~ Seghol 
protracted; 1 Shureq, 1 Hholem. In this way the longest 
vowels of these classes are distinctively marked.* 

4. In writing, however, the Hebrews did not always insert 
the vowel letters which would distinguish the long vowels of 
classes IJ. II]. When inserted, they call the method of wri- 








* In Arabic, long @ usually has an § as its accompanying sign; and then, the three 
classes of vowels are marked by the three vowel-letters. In Hebrew, the relation is 
somewhat diverse; see § 9, 1. § 23, 2. 


30 § 8. vOWEL-SIGNS. 


ting, scriptio plena, as dip, D4p; when omitted, it is named serip- 
tio defectiva, e. g. 5>P (for ni>ip), pp (for Dp). 


The full method is.regularly necessary at the end of words, as NUD, “1. 
The defective one is usual, when the vowel letter (quiescent) comes in con- 
tact with another of the same kind which is a consonant, e. g. D744 instead » 
of nia. Beyond this is no general rule; for the same word may be found 
written in a variety of ways; e. g. "mvapn Ezek. 16: 60, "miaps, "nap, 
all the same as to sound. (a) In general, (but not uniformly), the defective 
method prevails as to syllables in the root of a word, which have received an 
accession that throws the accent forward; e. g. P"T¥, plur. S3p3I¥; so dip, 
mibd, etc. (b) The later O. Test. books abound in the plené ; the earlier in 
the defectivé.* 


5. When a vowel-letter has a vowel-sign before it which is 
not kindred or homogeneous, a diphthong arises in the cognate 
dialects; e. g. "=, =, "=, ">, == au, eu, at. But the Hebrew lan- 
guage treats the vowel-letters in such cases as proper conso- 
nants; e. g. in the cases above it reads dv, ev, ay, dy. 


Thus we have “4 vdv, 18 gév, "M1 hhay, 15 goy. The not unusual syllable 
““_ is read as av, e. g. "723 d°bha-rav. But the Seventy more usually 
express a diphthongal sound, in such cases, like that of the Arabic ; which 
seems to denote that the older pronunciation of the Hebrew leaned the 
same way as the Arabic. The modern Jewish method (given above) resem- 
bles the modern Greek, where at, ev, = av, ev. In Ms. copies, Yodh and 
Vay, in cases where they retain a consonant-power, are written with a Map- 


pq, § 14, 1+ 
§ 9, 
Charastte and powers of the several Vowels. 
Numerous as the vowel-signs are, still they do not perfectly 


* The like is seen in the Phenician and Arabic. In the latter, the Mss. of the Ko- 
ran, and inscriptions on coins, make the fact very plain. 

+ [When vowels are such as that they may combine or coalesce with the letter which 
follow them, we say that the vowels are homogeneous. The older grammarians name 
the letters (8,5, 1, °) in such cases Quiescents, because their consonant-sound ceases, 
and only the prolonged sound of the vowel preceding is heard. The same letters are 
also called Mobiles, when they have a consonant-power. Roediger objects to these de- 
signations, and avers that it would be more proper to say, that the letters in question 
are spoken as vowels, or take the place of vowels. Yet, as no one can well be misled by 
the older names, when properly explained, and as they are not only very convenient, 

~ but describe very well what is matter of fact, viz, that the letters in question, after a 
homogeneous vowel, lose their own proper sound, I prefer not to drop the designation 
in question, viz. Quiescents. The same letters, on account of their frequently standing 
for vowels, are often technically named matres lectionis, because of the help which they 
afford the reader.—S. ] 





§9. POWERS OF THE VOWELS. jl 


express all the modifications of sound as to length and shortness, 
or as to quick acuted or extended sound; and hence the desig- 
nation of sounds by means of the vowel-signs, is not always 
perfectly congruous. I subjoin therefore a brief commentary, in 
respect to the nature and power of the vowels, and the muta- 
bility of the same; comp. § 25. § 27. 


Class I.; A sound. 

1. Qamets proper is everywhere 4 long, and is of two kinds: 

(1) That which is essentially long, fixed, and immutable, e. g. 
in 32 kethabh, 323 gan-nabh, 5p (sometimes written oxp). In 
Arabic, this vowel is accompanied regularly by the Aleph. 

(2) The long a of mere prosody, may stand either in the tone- 
syllable, or before or after it. Everywhere it springs from short 
a, and is found in open and closed syllables ;* (§ 26, 3). Such 
a Qamets stands in a closed syllable only when it has the tone 
or accent; in an open syllable it may precede the tone, and 
usually does; e. g. 927. 

When the tone is lessened (as in the construct state, § 87), the Qamets in 
question goes over into Pattah, as "23, const. "23; when the tone is thrown 
forward, it goes into Sheva (§ 27, 3), as 73, pl. "923, where 5 goes into 7. 
Qamets pure or prosodial may stand at the end of a word, as in QP ; but 
here frequently % quiescent is added to support it, as MX, usually written 
nm. 

2, Pattah, as a short a@ in an appropriate sense, stands only 
in a closed syllable, either with or without the tone, as 52p, bhp; 
and those words which now have Pattah in an open syllable, 
for the most part originally exhibited it in a closed one; e. g. 
"32, orig. 133; M2, orig. m3; § 28, 4. 

For cases in which Pattah is connected with & (X-—), see § 23, Note 2. 
For & short in Pattah furtive, see § 22, 2, 6. 

3. Segihol, as belonging to the first class of vowels, comes in 
in the place of Pattah as a more obscure sound, e. g. 778 for 72S. 
Although a curtailed sound, yet it can stand in a tone-syllable, 
as in y7&; and even in a pause-syllable at the end of a verse. 


Class II.; Sound of I and E. 
4. Long I, (= ¢e in seen), is more usually expressed by the 





“* [An open syllable is one ending with a vowel sound ; a closed syllable is one end- 
ng with a consonant; e. g. sup the first syllable open, 54» the last syllable closed. | 


o2 §9. POWERS OF THE VOWELS. 


aid of Yodh, ("-), i. e. written plené; but if not so written, the 
nature of the vowel is not changed (§ 8, 4), e. g. pps, DPT; 
x, No, Any. 

Whether a Hhireq is long when * is omitted, is best decided by a know- 
ledge of the grammatical origin and condition of the form; often, from the 


condition of the syllable (§ 26); or from the placing of a Methegh (§ 16, 2) 
after it, as IN. 


&. Short Hhireg (always written defective) is commonly used 
in a closed and toneless syllable, as >ep, >upe. Sometimes this 
vowel is put in the room of @ shortened; as "m2 from m3, "723 
(= 223) from 123. Sometimes it is employed as a mere eu- 
phonic helping-vowel; as m3 for ra (§ 28, 4). 

The Jewish and older grammarians named every Hhireq written plené, 
Hhireq magnum; and every one written defective, Hhireq parvum, But 
this is an erroneous view of the sounds appropriate to long and to short 
Hhireq. 

G. The longest E (*—) is a contracted sound of the diph- 
thong *= (§ 7, 1); which in Arabic and Syriac is employed in- 
stead of the Tsere. E. g. Heb. 525, hé-khal, Ar. Syr. hai-khal. 
Such a T'sere is a very long and immutable vowel, and ap- 
proaches near to a diphthongal length. The *= is longer than 
"—. Very seldom is *~ written defective, as "22 for "22, where 
both are of the same sound. 


At the end of words, the omission of the Yodh is not normal. Seldom in- 
deed do such cases occur as MUP = “"mMbup. 


4%. Tsere without Yodh is long E of a secondary order, and, 
like the Qamets in Class I. 1. No. 2 above, may be in or out of 
a tone-syllable. In an open syllable, it may have the tone, or be 
without it, as in "BO, 434; in a closed syllable it must have the 
tone, as j2, >&@p. 

&, Seghol, so far as it belongs (as it principally does) to the 
second Class of vowels, is a short curtailed E sound, arising 
from the abbreviation of the (-); e. g. j2 out of ja. It arises also 
from the half-vowel or Sheva (§ 10,1), when a tone is thrown 
upon the very short syllable which this makes; e. g. "7, "n4h; 
‘m2,°m>. Besides this, it forms the usual factitious involuntary 
vowel of the last syllable in Segholate forms, as in “26 for 520, 


>a" for 237, (§ 28, 4)—-Seghol with Yodh (*=) springs from the 


§ 9. POWERS OF THE VOWELS. 33 


diphthongal ai, and is long, but not so long as *-, and is like 
the French é and German @; e. g. in 42s. In such cases it 
belongs to Class I. of the vowels. 


See further on the rise of Seghol out of other vowels, § 27, Note 1, 2, 4. 


Class III; Vowels U and O. 


9 In the third class, the relation of the two vowels is alto- 
gether like that between the two in the second class. One must 
separate as to the U sound: ; 

(1) The long U, either (a) Written plené with Shureq (*), as 
in >433; or, (b) Written defective, as in 521, where the Qibbuts 
vicarious (as the old grammarians name it) is the same in length 
or quantity as the proper Shureq above. The shortening is 
merely orthographic. 

Comp. Hhireq magnum, in No. 4 above, written plené and defective ("— , —). 


(2) The short %, the proper Qibbuts (comp. short Hhireq in 
No. 5 above) is employed in closed unaccented syllables, and 
is specially frequent in syllables with a sharpened sound; e. g. 
N28, MEP. 

For this acuted sound, the Seventy usually employ an o as the represen- 
tative; e. g. bay *OSoldau. It does not follow, however, that this is an 
exact expression of the true sound; for they express Hhireq also by e. 
Erroneous is it to sound Qibbuts proper as i. 

1Q@, The O sound is related to the U, as in the second class 
the E stands related to the I. It has four gradations: 

(1) The longest O, which springs from the diphthong aw 
(§ 7,1); mostly written plene, as i (Hholem plenum); e. g. 218 
shot, Arab. saut; m>i> from 232. Nearly always written plené ; 
but in a few cases defective, as 778 for FAB. 

(2) Long O, which springs from an obscure original a, and 
in a tone-syllable is usually written plené, as M1>8 Tlo-*h, Arab. 
Chald. é/ah. In an unaccented syllable it is usually written de- 
fective; as >¥p qo-tel. 

(3) A third O is that which comes from 6 or % prolonged. 
When this vowel is shortened, it goes of course into short 6 or 
iy e.g. dB, ~>2 kol, 552 kul-lam, S&P, 4bep2 yiq-tdl-kha. Some- 
times it is even shortened into Sheva; e. g. *>upr (yiq-t*la) in- 
stead of 2p". Seldom is it written plene. 

5 


34 § 9. POWERS OF THE VOWELS. 


(4) The (=), when Qamets Hhatuph, is always short, and 
stands related to Hholem, as Seghol (No. 8 above) to T'sere; 
e. g. ~>2 qol, BPs vay-ya-qom. For the distinction of this from 
Qamets with A sound, see in the Notes below. 

11. The Seghol belongs here, also, so far as it arises out of 
auworo; e.g. 098 from omy, m8 from nix. [Comp. Remarks 
under Class IIL. p. 28 above]. For half-vowels (Shevas) see 
the next §. 

12. The following table exhibits a graduated scale of the 
quantity of vowels from the longest to the shortest. The table 
does not perfectly exhibit all the transitions or gradations of 
vowels in the language; but it exhibits a synopsis of the more 


frequent: 


Class L; A. Class IIL; land E. |Class IIL; UandO. 
— longest d (= Arab. | *— é diphthongal (out of | i 6 diphthongal (out of 


R.). at). au). 
“— é (out of at). i or — 6 (out of &@ ob- 
scure). 
~ dwith prolonged tone, | "— or —, long i [= ee]. |, —, long u [= oo]. 
(from short d or —)| ~ prolonged tone (out|- prolonged 6 (out of 
in or out of tone-syl- of % or —), in and| —6, or—), in the tone- 
lable. out of the tone-syl-| syllable. 
lable. 
— short d. — short i. — short w, specially in a 
% . 
syllable with an acute 
sound, 
~ short 6. 
— curtailed d. — curtailed e. — obscure e; (see in 


C). II. opposite). 
The most extreme shor- | The most extreme shor- | The extreme shortening 


tening is the half vow-| _ tening is the half vow- is the —, — (Shevas), 
els,(—,—),inanopen,|  els,(—,—),inan open, in an open syllable; 
or (—) in a closed| or (—) in a closed] %& —, or — (6), ina 
syllable. syllable. closed one. 


Norte. On separating Qamets from Qamets Hhatuph. 


It is an incongruity in the vowel system, that (— ) is employed both for a 
and 6; e. g. OP gdm, but also “DD kol. The beginner, (who is not acquaint- 
ed with the derivation of words which is the best guide), will derive aid 
from the following rules: viz. 

(1) The sign (—) is short 6 in a closed syllable, without the tone; for such a 
syllable cannot have a long vowel; § 26,3. The examples are of various 
kinds: . 

(2) When a Sheva follows which is silent, i. e. stands at the end of a syl- 


§ 9. POWERS OF THE YOWELS. 39 


lable; e. g. 722m hhdkh-ma, 7731 zokh-ra, If a Methegh stands after the 
(—), then it is read as d long, and stands in an open syllable; e. g. M731 
za-kh*ra; see § 16, 1. 

(6) When Daghesh forte immediately follows (—), it is read asd; e. g. 
dma bot-tim, 9225 hhén-né-ni. In such a case, even when a Methegh stands 
after the Qamets, the (—) is short, e. g. B>"Ma bot-te-khem. The Methegh 
stands regularly on the ‘antepenult syllable, and is put here for that reason, 
and not to affect the quantity of the vowel. 

(c) When Makkeph follows (= ), it is short 6 (§ 16, 1); e. g. DaNA~>D kol 
ha-Na-dham. (The accent falls away from the ~>2 before a Makkeph, see 
§ 16, as above.) 

(d) When the end-syllable is a closed one, without the tone; e. g. DP 
vay-ya-qom. But let it be well noted, that in this last case, (— ) sometimes 
reads as d long, when the syllable is closed and the accent is thrown off; 
e. g. Ma~an>, k*thabh had-dath ; so-r) shath-li. Methegh is commonly 
inserted here after the vowel-sign.* 

In such cases as 58>, 123, the first (—) is d long, because the syllable 
has the tone, § 26, 4. ; 

(2) More seldom is it, and indeed it properly belongs to the exceptions 
(§ 26, 3), when the sign (—) stands in an open syllable, and still is read as 6 
short. This takes place: (a) When Hhateph Qamets follows that vowel-sign ; 
as 1>38 po-°l6. (b) When another Qamets Hhatuph follows; e. g. 7238 pi- 
6l-ka, (c) Two words (even in Mss.) have — (short 6) as a substitute for —, 
i. e. Hhateph Qamets; which are Dp qo-dha-shim for D°w3p, and 
pews shé-ra-shim for ows. 

In these cases, the (— ) has every where a Methegh ( ) after it, although 
it is short 6, inasmuch as Methegh belongs to the second syllable before the 
tone-syllable. The exceptions that occur can be judged of only by gram- 
matical derivation; e. g. "2383 ba-°ni, in the ship, where the 3 stands for 72, 
i, e, 2 and the article 5. ‘On the contrary, in such a case as R703 bé- 
hh°ri aph, in a glow of anger, the article is omitted. [While the two cases 
appear alike, they are in reality substantially diverse}. 


§ 10. 
Half- Vowels and Syllable-divider. 


1. Besides the full vowels, of which the preceding section 
has treated, the Hebrew has a class of very rapid vowel-sounds, 
which are called Half- Vowels.t They are to be regarded as 


* But not always, even where it ought to be; e. g. Ps. 16: 5. 55: 19, 22, 


+ In the table above, § 9, 12, the half-vowels have by anticipation been already ad- 
verted to, for the sake of making the view more complete. 


36 § 10. sHEVA SIMPLE. - 


the greatest possible shortening of the vowels, and as it were 
the remains of fuller and more definite vowel-sounds belonging 
to an earlier period of the language. 

The principal of these rapid sounds is an exceedingly short, 
rapid and indefinite vowel, a kind of half e, which is called . 
Su®va.* This is called simple Sheva, in distinction from the 
composite Shevas, (see No. 2 below); also vocal or moveable 
Sheva, in distinction from itself when it is silent, and merely a 
sign of the division of syllables, (No. 3 below). This last, viz. 
silent Sheva, stands under a consonant when ending a syllable ; 
while Sheva vocal stands under a consonant when beginning a 
syllable. 

The vocal Sheva may be, (a) At the beginning of a word; as dup q°tol. 
(b) In the middle of a word; as Mbvip qo-t°la, *>up qit-tlu. Cases where 
Daghesh is implied, but omitted in the writing, are of the same nature; e. g. 
nbbit ha-l*lu (for >} bal-Ielu); 22 la-m°nats-tse*hh (for ‘a2). So ditten 
ha-m°shol, (where the nis an interrogative). Probably "sb = — ma-I*khe 
(not mal-khe). [If the Punctators had read this word as Roediger does, 
would they not have written it 327 ?] . | 

Very short € is the normal sound of Sheva (—); but it is quite probable 
that the living pronunciation attached other sounds also to it, The Seventy 
express Sheva by ¢, as O°2"9D Xegovfiw; sometimes even by 9, as ™> ara 
addnhovia; oftener however by a@, as >RIW Souorjd. Frequently it fol- 
lows the analogy of the vowel which succeeds; as BSD Soden, miabw: Zoho- 
poy, MINIS Zafao0d. The like do the Jewish grammarians of the ‘middle 
ages teach respecting Sheva.t 


How the Sheva-sound arose by means of rapidly sounding 
the stronger vowels, is manifest in such words as 273, 7293; 
the older sound being 5272, as in Arabic. ‘The Arabic, more- 
over, employs proper short vowels instead of Shevas vocal. 

Sheva vocal cannot form a closed syllable, i. e. one ending in 
a consonant; but it forms a rapid open syllable, of the slightest 


* Most probably si (Sheva) is of the same meaning as N71 nothingness, emptiness. 
The form of the name comes from a transposition of the vowel, so as to place the 
figure (: ) at the beginning of the name; a principle elsewhere followed in giving name 
to the vowels; see § 8,1. Note 4. 


+ This usage predominates in Phenician; e. g. mobi malaka, o*b324 gtibulim ; 
(see Monum. Phenic. p. 436). Comp. the Tatts augments in momordi, pupugi, an- 
ciently memordi ; while in Greek it is as in rérvga, TeTvupévoc. 


t See particularly Juda Hhayug in Ibn Ezra’s Tsahhoth, p. 3. Gesenius, Lehrgeb. 
d. Heb. Sprache, s. 68. 





§ 10. composiTE SHEVAS. 37 


kind. The rules for Methegh show this, in §16, 2. Besides, 
when a tone falls on a Sheva-syllable, it is prolonged; e. g. "n>, 
"n? lée-hhi; [thus showing that it is practically treated as a pro- 
per syllable, but not sufficient of itself to support an intonation]. 
2. Besides the Sheva simple described above, the Hebrew 
has three other half-vowels of the like nature, distinguished by 
the epithet Hhateph (527), and called composite Shevas, because 
they are orthographically made up of a proper short vowel and 
simple Sheva. ‘These ¢hree correspond to the three original 
classes of the*proper vowels (§ 7, 1), and are as follows: 


(=) Hhateph Pattah; e. g. in "7 hh*mor. 
(=z) Hhateph Seghol; e. g. in 8 8*mor. 
(—) Hhateph Qamets ; e. g. in "2 bholi. 


These are specially employed, (at least the first two), under the four Gut- 
turals, 8, 4, 4, 2, (§ 22,3). They serve, under these letters, to make the 
pronunciation of them more plain and distinctive. 

Nore. Two of these composite Shevas, viz.(_) and (_ ), are sometimes 
associated with letters noé guttural. The other (_) is joined with Gutturals 
only. 

(1) Hhateph Pattah sometimes is put in the room of Sheva simple: (a) 
Where the latter would regularly stand under a letter with Daghesh forte, 
but the Daghesh is omitted, and then this composite Sheva is employed ; 
e. g. "222 instead of "222, Gen. 9: 14. So sn¥2xm5 (2 for 5), Judg. 16: 16. 
(b) After a preceding long vowel; e. g. amt, anti, Gen. 2:12; saw, savin, 
Deut. 5: 24. Comp. Gen. 27: 26, 38. Yet these usages are not uniform, but 
only occasional. 

(2) Hhateph Qamets is much less frequent under Gutturals, than the other 
two composite Shevas. Under other letters it somewhat frequently takes 
the place of a normal Sheva simple: (a) When an O sound falls out, but 
the same sound, made as rapid as possible, is retained instead of a normal 
Sheva simple; e. g. "87 instead of 34> ($91. Par. VL and 6); 4Ez75, 
Ezek. 35: 6, instead of the normal 42377 (from 579"); PIP, from 7p3p 
(b) When Daghesh falls out (comp. 1. a above); e,g. AMp> lugq-*hha, Gen. 2: 
23, for nap>. (In Hyzp4, 1 Kings 13: 7; "pes, Jer. 22: 20, Sheva compo- 
site seems to be occasioned by the following Guttural and the preceding 
Shureq.) , 

3. Sheva simple is also a divider of syllables ; in which case 
it is quiescent, merely denoting the end of a syllable. (In Ara- 
bic, Jesm (*) stands for such a divider). It is written at the end 
of every closed syllable, (which terminates of course with a con- 


38 §§ 11, 12. pacuesH rorTE. 


sonant), unless it be the final syllable of a word. Here it is al- 
ways omitted, excepting in two cases: (a) In a 3 final; e. g. in 
322. (b) When do consonants stand at the end of a final syl- 
lable; e. g. 722, 8 fem., Mvp, ave, mn, etc. 

It would seem, however, that Sheva, at the end of the latter examples, © 
might well be regarded as vocal ; for it is plain that it represents a proper 
vowel much shortened; e. g. MX alt’ [nearly as y in holy] from “AN atti ; 
meup, from "M>vp fem.; avs, from maw, etc.* 


§11. 
Of the Reading Signs. 
In the most intimate connection with the vowel-signs, stand 
the reading signs, which are of contemporary origin with them. 
(1) We have the diacritical point over & and ¥, in order to dis- 
tinguish them; see p. 22. ‘Then, (2) All the consonants, except 
the Gutturals, may take a point in the bosom of them; which 
has, according to circumstances, three different meanings, to be 
explained in the sequel. Besides this, there is, in Mss., a small 
horizontal stroke, called Raphe, over certain letters, which indi- 
cates that the soft pronunciation of them is to be adopted; see 
§14. 


§ 12. 
Of Daghesh in general, and Daghesh forte in particular. 


J. Daghesh denotes, (a) The doubling of the letter in which 
it is inserted, when it is called Daghesh forte; e. g. >up qit-tél. 
(b) The harder pronunciation of the Aspirates (722723); in 
which case it is called Daghesh lene. 


The root Ua, from which a7 comes, means (in Syriac) to pierce or bore 
through; and accordingly Daghesh is usually explained, after its shape, as 
meaning point. But the name of all like signs is explained by its gram- 
matical use ; which here, however, stands related to the form. In the language 
of grammar, 837 means, (1) 7'o acute or sharpen the sound of a letter by 
doubling it. (2) Z'o harden a letter, i. e. to utter it hard or without aspira- 
tion. Hence 35 sharp, and also hard, i. e. a sign for sharpness and _hard- 
ness; (just as P"5"2, proferens, stands for a sign of prolongation or enlarge- 








* So also the Jewish grammarian, Judah Hhayug. The Arabic has an actual short 
vowel in analogous cases. In 743 ( an Indian word), and wap qosht, it is difficult 
to make out the same theory. 


§13. DAGHESH LENE. 39 


ment,(§14). A point, made by the sharp end of the stylus, is the represen- 
tative of these processes. (In a way analogous to this, a point, i. e. a form 
of a pointed instrument, called obelisk (lance-point), denoted that the letter 
or words to which it was affixed were to be considered as expuncta or ex- 
punged). The opposite to Daghesh is Raphe (°), see § 14. 2. As ‘a proof 
that Daghesh hardens the sound of letters in various ways, what is said in 
§ 22. 3 may suffice. 

2. Most importantis Daghesh forte, which is a sign that the 
letter is to be doubled. 

This may be compared with the Sicilicus of the old Latins, e. g. Lucu- 
ius for Lucullus ; or the old method of printing, in German and some other 
languages, m and n for these letters doubled respectively. In unpointed 
Hebrew, this, with all other reading signs, is omitted. 

As to the cases in which it is employed, see § 20; where its various kinds 
are also described. 


§13. 
Of Daghesh lene. 


1. Daghesh lene as the sign of simply hardening the sound 
of a letter, has relation only to the Aspirates, viz., "22732 ($6. 3). 
It means that they are to be pronounced with their original hard 
sound, and without any aspiration, i. e. that they have a slender 
or pure sound, (literae tenues). . g. 522 me-lékh, but %2>2 
mal-ko; “8m ta-phar, "M7 yith-por; 458 sha-tha, hw yish-te. 

2. The cases where this occurs, see in § 21, viz. exclusively 
at the commencement of words and syllables. Hereby it may 
easily be distinguished from Daghesh forte; inasmuch as no 
doubling is feasible in the cases just stated. E. g. Daghesh is 
forte in "88 appi, 5°27 rab-bim ; but dene in >335 yigh-dal. 

3. When Daghesh forte is inserted in one of the Aspirates, 
the aspiration is excluded, so that the Daghesh answers two pur- 
poses, viz. that of hardening, and that of doubling the letter; 
e. g. "BS ap-pi (not aph-pi), O27 rak-koth. 

It lies in the nature of the thing, that where the letter is to be 
doubled, the soft pronunciation is less feasible. Greek words, 
imitating the Hebrew, show that Daghesh hardens in the Aspi- 
rates; €. g. NBD xamza (not xag-ma); so MED campegos. 

The West Aramaean employs no Daghesh, but still the letter 
is hardened in which the Daghesh by analogy would be insert- 
ed; e. g. PBX ap-péq, in Syriac reads a-peg. 


40 §14. mapPiQ AND RAPHE. 


§14. 
Mappiq and Raphe. 


1. Mappigq is also a point in the bosom of a letter; but it is 
limited, even in Mss., to the Quiescents 8,5, 1,7, and shows © 
merely that these letters thus marked claim the stronger pronun- 
ciation, viz. that of consonants, and not that of vowels. In our 
printed Hebrew, Mappiq is not employed in connection with 
&, 1,7, but is used only in the (7); and in this, only at the end 
of a word. Inthe beginning or middle of a word, = is of course 
understood to be vocal as a consonant, and needs no mark. In 
our Hebrew Bibles, we have, 723 ga-bhah, *¥78 ar-tsah, (dif- 
ferent from M378 ar-tsa). 

No doubt that such a He (™) was spoken harder, like the Arabic He at 
the end of a syllable. In Mss., Mappig is found in and under &, 4, *, also 
to indicate a consonant-power in the following manner: "3 goy, "Pp qav.* 

The word P52 means producens, prolonging, i. e. a sign that the letter 
in which it eit is to be produced or articulately pronounced. Its resem- 
blance to Daghesh is not in the form only, (which is the same), but the de- 
sign is of the same nature, i. e. to indicate the strong sound of the letter. 
Raphe (No. 2) is the opposite of both. 


2, Raphe (m5, weak) is asmall horizontal stroke over a let- 
ter, and indicates, as said above, the opposite of Daghesh and 
Mappiq, viz. that the letter is to be pronounced sii or with 
aspiration. 

[In accurate Mss. all the Aspirates (MDD733) have always either a Daghesh 
or a Raphe; e. g. like “Sm, HMw, etc, Printed Bibles omit it, excepting 
here and there a solitary case, where it serves a special purpose; e. g. in 
InSNn} Judg. 16: 16, it shows that the 5 has a Daghesh forte omitted; 
Da Judg. 16: 28, shows that the Daghesh lene is omitted in the Mm; in 
Job 31: 22, 422 shows that Mappiq is to be omitted in the 5. But in 
these notations, the various printed copies do not agree.—S,] 


§ 15. 
Of the Accents. 


J. The general design of the Accents is to mark the rhythmi- 








* [It appears, therefore, that in Mss., 1 may be V; or it may be a letter with Da- 
ghesh forte, as mip qav-va. The point under Yodh is a Mappiq, i. e. only a sign that * 
(at the end of a word) is read as y consonant. If the letter before the » have no vow- 
el, then 4 is a Shureq; if it have one, then is the point a Daghesh forte, or (as above) 
a Mappiq in Mss. —S.] 


§15. accents. 14 


cal arrangement of a verse, in the text of the O. Test. Buta 
twofold purpose is subserved in doing this. The accents mark 
partly the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence, 
and partly the tone-syllable of each particular word. In the 
first respect the accents perform the part of interpunction-signs ; 
in the last they subserve the ordinary purposes of accents, viz. 
to mark the tone. 


The Jews regard them also as declamation or recitative signs, marking the 
highness and lowness or variations of the voice in reciting ; and they follow 
them in reading the Scriptures in their Synagogues. Moreover, this use 
of the accents is dependent on the general rhythmical design of them. 


2, As signs of the tone, the different accents are all equiva- 
lent to each other; for there is only one kind of tone in Hebrew. 
In most words, the tone rests on the last syllable; seldom 
(comparatively) on the penult. The first case is named Milra 
(2222, Chald., of the lower part), e. g. >»p qa-tal, is Milra; the 
other is named Milel (>"222, Chald., of the part above), e. g. 72% 
mé-lekh. The antepenult never has the tone; but it often has 
a kind of half accent, marked by Methegh (-), § 16. 2. 

3. So far as the accents are signs of interpunction, their use 
is of a complicated nature; for they are not barely signs of sep- 
aration, (like our period, colon, comma), but in part they are 
signs of conjunction. Hence they are distributed into Distinc- 
tives (Domini), and Conjunctives (Servi). Moreover some are 
appropriate only to those poetical books which have a more 
strenuous rhythm, i. e. Job, Psalms, Proverbs. The following 
is a synopsis of them, arranged according to their respective 
power as signs of interpunction : 


A. Distinotives, (Domine). 

I. Largest Distinctives, (Imperatores), like our peri- 
od and colon: 

1. (—) Sillug (end), only at the end of a verse; where it is 
always followed bya(:) Soph Pasug,i. e. end of a verse, which 
i. the close of each verse. 

2. (—) Athnahh (respiration); mostly in the middle of a 


verse; [=colon or semicolon]. 
6 . 


42 §15. accents. 


ao (= ) Merkha with wah ;* [= semicolon, marking the 
lone of a ortyos]. 

Il. Larger Distinetiv es, (Reges) ; viz. 4, (~~) Se- 
gholta +}. b. (:—) Zageph-Qatén. 6. ('—) Zageph Géadhil. 
7. (—) Tiphha. 

Ill. Smaller Distinctives, (Duces); 8.(—) Rebi*. 
9. (—) Zarqatt. 10. (—) Pashtat}. 11. (—) Yethibh ft. 
12. (—) Tebhir. 18. (‘—) Shalsheleth*. 14. (—) Tiphha 
initial . 

IV. Smallest Distinetives, ( Comites—Counts) ; 15. 
(+) Pazer. 16. (—) Qarne Phara. 17. (~) Great Teli- 
shat. 18. (“—) Geresh. 19. (‘—) Double Geresh. 20. (1) 
Pesiq (between words). 


B. ConsuncTives, (Serve). 

21. (—) Merka. 22. (—) Munahh. 23. (—) Double 
Merka. '24. (—) Mahpakh. 25. (—) Kadma. 26. (—) Dar- 
ga, 27. (—) Yerahh. 28. (—) Little Telishat}. 29. (—) 
Tiphha final*. 30. (—) Merka with Zarga*, 31. (—) 
Mahpakh with Zarqa*. 


REMARKS ON THE ACCENTS. 


I. Accents as signs of the tone. 


1. As in Greek (eiui and ius), and in other languages, words are some- 
times distinguished merely by the tone or accent ; so also in Hebrew, words 
of the same consonants and vowels are sometimes distinguished by the 
tone; e. g. 132 (they built), 125 (with us); 725 (she stood), Map (part. stand- 
ing). , 

2. Normally an accent stands on the tone-syllable of a word, viz. on the 
consonant which begins the syllable. But there are some accents (marked 
+ above), that can stand only on the first letter of a word, which are called 
PraepositivE; others (marked +} above), which can stand only on the last. 
letter of a word, and these are called Posrpositive. Of course, neither of 
these two kinds point out with certainty the tone-syilable, [for they may 
fall on it, and may not], and we must resort to other means in such a case, 
in order to find out the accented syllable; [of which analogy is the princi- 
pal one]. 


* All which have this star affixed to their names, belong only to the poetical books 
mentioned above. 


§15 accents. 43 


3. As in grammatical treatises we often need to mark a tone-syllable to 
the eye of the reader, there is a general agreement among grammarians to 
mark this uniformly by the sign (—); which is employed in this volume. 


Il. Accents as signs of Interpunction. 

4. In respect to this, every verse is regarded asa complete period, [while 
the fact is often otherwise], and is concluded by a Sillug, [with a Soph Pa- 
suq].* Grammarians, using figurative language, name the portion which 
thus belongs to a verse the domain (ditio) of Silluq, over which Sillug reigns 
as Imperator. The domain, therefore, is small or great, in proportion to the 
length of the verse. In the larger verses, stand arranged under this impe- 
rator several domini, greater or smaller, as the domain may be, dividing the 
verse [like our interpunction], into greater and smaller classes. 

5. Only those words which stand closely related to each other, can be 
joined by a conjunctive accent, (Servus), [Normally] two conjunctives do 
not follow each other, [when several words are intimately connected], but 
the conjunction is brought about by employing a Maqqeph between words, 
§ 16. 1. 

6. In very short verses few or no conjunctive accents are employed. The 
smaller distinctives subserve, in a measure, the like purpose, (servit domino 
majort). On the contrary, in very long verses, the Conjunctives are used 
for the smaller Distinctives, ( fiunt legati dominorum). 

7. The choice of this or that Distinctive or Conjunctive depends on subtile 
laws of consecution ; of which the beginner in Hebrew need take no par- 
ticular notice. For his purpose it will be sufficient to make himself ac- 
quainted with all the larger Distinctives, which may be compared to our pe- 
riod, colon, semi-colon, and comma. But he will soon see, that some of 
these often stand where he would make either no suspension of the dis- 
course, or at most only a half-comma. Most important of all are the larger 
accents in poetry ; inasmuch as they determine the length of the respective 
orizo.. (See Ges. Lesebuch, Vorer. zur 2d Abth. No. 6). 


§ 16. 
Of Maqqeph and Methegh. 
Both of these stand in the closest connection with the Ac- 
cents : . aif 
1, Maqgeph (AP2, i. e. the connecter) is a small cross-line 
near the upper part of words and between them; and it so con- 





* Silluq has the same form as Methegh (-—), see § 16. 2, but never can be confound- 
ed with it. Silluq always stands on the /ast tone-syllable of a verse ; Methegh never 
occupies a tone-syllable. 


6 
44 §16. MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. 


nects them, that they are regarded as only one word in respect 
to tone and interpunction, and accordingly they have but one ac- 
cent. From two to four words can be united by a Maqqeph, 


E. g. Box->>; awe-b2-my, Gen. 1: 29; i>-nuig7>a-my, Gen. 25: 5. Some 
monosyllabic words, by, , MN (sign of Acc.), ) (all), nearly always take Maq- 
geph after them, [on account of their necessary connection with another 
word]. On the other hand, a long word may be connected with a short 
one, even a monosyllabic one, by a Maqqgeph; e. g. moyen, Gen. 6:9; 
jo, Gen. 1: 7, 9; also we-nva8, Gen. 7: 11. The insertion or omis- 
sion of Maqgeph depends on the principle, that two Conjunctives should not 
follow each other, When the sense connects intimately several words, Maq- 
geph is employed to relieve the difficulty. 


2. Methegh, (atv2, check, bridle), is a small perpendicular 
stroke on the left of a vowel-point, and forms a kind of delay or 
half accent, or a reaction in tone with respect to the accents as 
signs of the leading tone. Itshows, that we must not hasten the 
vowel on which it depends, but give it a distinctness of enuncia- 
tion. It stands regularly on the vowel of the antepenult syllable, 
when the last syllable has the tone; or on the third syllable back 
of the tone; and it may connect itself with either a long or a 
short vowel; e.g, DONA, ANN, also HIP qodashim, 82°72 bot- 
te-khem. 


In finding the place of the Methegh, Sheva vocal, and the composite Shevas, 
are reckoned as making a syllable (§10. 1. §26); e. g. (a) M>up qa-t-la, 
aN yi-re-u, ‘Hw sa-h-dhi, 12h ho-#la, 4432 na-*ro, 1228 po-Clo. (b) So 
even a simple Sheva mobile may receive a Methegh je. g. 8°87, [both words 
are here considered as one, No. 1 above]. In this last case, the Jewish 
grammarians name the Methegh X*35 gay-yd. Some of them extend this 
appellation to Methegh in general. 

Methegh serves a purpose of some importance to learners. E. g. Qa- 
mets and Hhireq are known to be long before a Sheva, by reason of it; as 
M31 za-kh°ra (not A534 zokh-ra). The ground of such a conclusion is sim- 
ple: Methegh must be on the antepenult; if rightly placed > must count 
as a syllable, and its Sheva of course be vocal. Consequently Qamets in 
such an open syllable must be long, § 26,3. So 4 ANT yi-reu, Not AN yir-u. 
See the rules for distinguishing Qamets Hhatuph, §9, Note. 

[Norr. Roediger has stopped far short here of solving all the cases of 
Methegh which occur. (a) If the antepenult be a closed syllable, and there 
is another open syllable before it, the Methegh is put upon that open one; 
e.g. M583, a>rya5. (b) When the antepenult is a closed syllable, Methegh 


§ 17. QERI AND KETHIBH. 45 


may be put on it so as to create another syllable; e. g. mrad la-menats- 
tse*hh, 7202. But this is only in cases where there is some particular 
need of making the vowel of the antepenult somewhat distinctive ; for cases 
everywhere occur of closed antepenults without a Methegh; e. g. “Pp, 
prawn, mwa, Gen. 1: 9. (c) Methegh is not unfrequent on a normally 
penult and closed syllable; as NU3M, "220 Is. 10: 34, 1942 Ps. 76:12. True, 
after the Methegh is put on such syllables, it stands on the antepenult, be- 
cause (in the way of reckoning above stated) the word, which was of itself 
dissyllabic, then becomes trissyllabic. There are many cases of this sort. 
(d) When there are four syllables, Methegh often stands on the first syllable 
when closed; as in UMW, FHSS, oI. (e) Not a few cases occur 
of two Metheghs on the same word; e. g. snnein ,ipypmss,etc. (f) Long 
monosyllables before Maqqeph (penult as Facktortdd) nay take Methegh; e. g. 
DRT, HIND. Finally, (g) Mere Sheva penult sometimes has it; e. g. 
ANI, NW, 4, etc. 

Moreover the Conjunctives frequently take the place of Methegh, where two 
accents are written on the same word; e. g. prapinth, where Methegh 
would normally be under the syllable 2, which now has Munahh, a Con- 
junctive, ' 

It is indeed of little serious consequence to the ihe, of Hebrew, at the 
present day, to understand all these minutiae, some of which savour of con- 
_ ceit, some of excessive concern about marking the niceties of enunciation, 
and some of a design to distinguish the different component elements of a 
word. But the student, who should have before him only Roediger’s de- 
velopment and principles, must find himself embarrassed and indeed non- 
plus’d on every page, if he aims at acquiring an entire knowledge of Me- 
thegh. To know even that a thing is in part arbitrary and inconstant, is not 
unimportant.—S. } 


§ 17. 
Of Qeri and Kethibh. 


On the margin of our Hebrew Bibles are many Lectiones 
Variae (§ 3, 2), which are named “p, i.e. which should be read, 
because, as the Jews aver, they are readings preferable to those 
in the text, which is technically called s*n2, i. e. that which is 
written. 'The vowels which belong to the Qeri, however, are 
not printed under it, but under the Kethibh in the text. The 
reader must transfer these to the Qeri or marginal word, in or- 
der to read as the Jews do. 

E. g. Jer. 42: 6, the text is 528, which is not readable; but on the mar- 
gin, the Qeri exhibits rx, which is to be read with the vowels of the other 


46 §§ 18, 19. CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 


word, viz. 242%. A small circle is put over a Kethibh word, to give notice 
that there is another reading. As to the value of the Qeri, see Ges. Geschich. 
der Heb. Sprache, s. 50, 75. 


CHAPTER II. 


§ 18. 
Peculiarities and Changes of Letters, Syllables, and Accents. 


In order to understand correctly and entirely the changes 
which the forms of several parts of speech undergo, it is neces- 
sary to take a survey of the general laws on which those changes 
are dependent. They are grounded, partly on the peculiar con- 
dition of certain classes of letters, in themselves considered, or 
in their combination into syllables; partly on certain usages of 
language in respect to syllables and the tone. 


§ 19. 
Changes of the Consonants. 


The changes which occur in the consonants, through the for- 
mation of words, flexion, euphony, or foreign influence, are 
EXCHANGE, ASSIMILATION, OMISSION, ADDITION, and TRANSPOSI- 
TION. 

1, Most naturally those consonants are ExcHANGED, which 
are of similar enunciation, and are uttered with the same organ. 

E. g. 722, 029, 129, to rejoice; ND, Hd, Aram. My>, to be weary; D— 
and j*— as plur. endings; ym, V2, to oppress ; 930, "20, to shut up; wd 
and w>B, to escape. It appears, that in the course of time, and by leaning 
toward Aramaeism, the harsher and rougher letters were sometimes ex- 
changed with weaker ones; e. g. >x3 for 523, to defile; pny for pny, to 
laugh. In like manner the Sibilants are exchanged with the corresponding 
flat sounds; e. g. ‘7 is put for 1, © for ¥, m for B. 

This exchange, however, belongs rather to lexical than gram- 
matical discussion, with which we are here occupied. ‘To the 
grammatical belong: (a) The exchange of © with ©, in Hith- 
pael (§ 53). (6) Of Vav with Yodh in verbs Pe Yodh (§ 68) ; 
e. g. 729 for 32, he begat. 


§ 19. CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 47 


2, AssimiLaTIon is most usually brought about, by the 
change of a letter which concludes a syllable into the same let- 
ter that begins the next syllable ; so that, in this way, a doubling 
or double sound of the letter is occasioned. E. g. in Latin, i- 
lustris for inlustris, diffusus for disfusus, ete. In Hebrew this 
takes place most frequently : 


(a) When a syllable ends with a weak nasal 2, particularly 
before the harder consonants; but before Guttwrals, the 2 more 
commonly remains wnassimilated. 


E. g. Bop for S322; Hr for Hire; jm? for 27; mH: for min3. Before 
Gutturals, however, 3 deity remains, as in >F1335 and sometimes the like 
before other letters, as h]2W (not M2). 


(b) In a few cases, and but a few, assimilation takes place in 
respect to >,4, 7. 


E. g. Mp. for Mp2"; 72525 for y!2NN4; v followed by Daghesh is some- 
times used instead of a “,as °Y for “UN. 

Norte 1. In all these cases, the assimilated letter is written as a Daghesh 
forte in the letter which follows; excepting that, when this Daghesh would 
come to be written in the end of a word, it is omitted because the end let- 
ter does not allow of a doubling in this way, (§ 20, 3, a). E. g. 5&8 for 52 
(not 5X); Mm for mm or min, [the 3 assimilated being implied 5 in the hae - 
of the first word] ; “pd for nob comp. Greek tvwag for tiwars. In these 
latter cases, the assimilated letter has not Sheva under it, but a Seghol ; 
{which however is merely a helping-vowel in such cases, and does not pre- 
vent assimilation]. See § 28, 4. 

Norte 2. More seldom is a weaker letter swallowed up by a stronger pre- 
ceding one; e. g. SM>2UP for smm>up (§ 58); 12279 for M299 (§ 101, 2). Un- 
der the same class may be reckoned 38° for 2357 (§ 66, 5). 


3. An entire omission or casting away of a consonant is 
specially appropriate to letters of a breathing sound, to the vowel- 
letters, and to the liquids: 


(a) At the beginning of words (aphaeresis), when a weak consonant has 
only a Sheva under it; e. g. 12792 for 13738; IY for 324; jm for jn3. 

(b) In the middle of words (contraction), when the Sheva precedes such a 
weak letter; e. g. 4222 for 32°32; >*wps for >wpm, (§ 52, 1). 

(c) At the end (apocope); as *>2P% for FOR; D3, but before the Gen. 
“23. 

Freer and bolder changes took place in earlier times, especially in cast- 
ing away letters at the end of words; e. g. 78 can come only from j28; 3 


48 § 20. DoUBLING OF THE CONSONANTS. 


from m3, 1 (article) from 55 (?), § 97. To the same category belongs the 
curtailing of the fem. ending in n— into N=; § 44, 1. § 79, 2. 

4., In order to facilitate the pronunciation, an 8 PROSTHETIC 
is sometimes prefixed to words; e. g. 271 and 2748 (arm) ; 
2D out of 524. (Comp. Greek yes, @0¢s). 

§. The rransposition of letters seldom occurs in the bounds 
of grammar; it principally belongs to lexicography. 

In the grammatical domain are such cases as “2ane7 for 2uNn, 
because sé is easier to utter than ¢s. In lexicography, not a few 
transpositions may be found, like ©32 and a> (lamb); 7228 
and 7254 (clothing). Mostly, such changes are concerned with 
the Sibilants and Liquids. 

Consonants that are weak, at the end of a syllable, may flat- 
ten away into a vowel-sound; e. g. es from és, chevaux (she- 
vo) out of cheval, and the Hebrew, 32%> out of 3232 or 2332; Ux 
out of 28, (where the Seghol is merely a helping vowel).* 


§ 20. 
Doubling of the Consonants ; when it takes place and when 
omitted. 


1. The doubling of consonants by Daghesh forte, takes 
place, and is necessary or essential : 

(a) When the same letter must be repeated without an inter- 
vening vowel; e. g. 20} is written "2932; "Mn is written "Mw. 

(b) When the same repetition takes place in consequence of 
assimilation, (§ 19, 2); e. g. jn? for jn. Both of these are call- 
ed Daghesh compensative. 

(c) When a consonant, originally single, must be doubled in 
order to construct a new form; e. g. Kal 723, Piel 725. This 
is called Daghesh Ser etertic. 

The same letter doubled must be fully written out, whenever a yowel, 
even of the shortest kind (Sheva) comes between. Of course: (a) After a 
long vowel; e. g. £°2>4n, ho-l*-lim (§ 26, Note); so yaw. (b) The same 
must be done, when Daghesh forte belongs to the first of the two letters, 
but has fallen out in the writing; e. g. 55h ha-le-lu, for >>. (c) When 
two letters of the same kind come together, which really belong to two dif- 
ferent words ; e. g. 2737, 723589—9, when 5 in the first and "3 in the second 


* In Punic, we find mokh out of 45% malkh ; Ges. Mon. Phenic. p. 431. 


§ 20. DoUBLING OF THE CONSONANTS. 49 


word are suffix-pronouns. (d) When the form comes, by declension, from 
another which has a vowel between the doubled letters; e. g. M>>P, const. 
m2>p. (e) In some cases both methods of writing are adopted; as Dv 15 
(written anomalously as to the second 4, which should have a Daghesh lene) 
Jer, 5: 6; DIY Prov. 11:3 (in Qert); 725 Ps. 9: 14, “29 Ps. 4:2. [The 
true solution of these anomalous cases is, probably, that of an attempt to 
copy the niceties of living traditionary pronunciation. ] 

2. Besides the cases above described, there are some, where 
Daghesh forte is inserted merely in the way of euphony, [or as 
a means of preserving the niceties of traditional pronunciation] ; 
which is then called Dacuesn EvpHoNic. This belongs not at 
all to the essence of words, [but pertains merely to the enuncia- 
tion of some particular words], and is not the subject of any 
rule or fixed principle: 

(1) Zivo words, the first of which ends in a vowel, are some- 
times drawn closer together by inserting a Daghesh forfe in the 
first letter of the second; in which case they are read as if they 
were one word. ‘This is DaGHESH FORTE CONJUNCTIVE. 

Thus 37M (instead of Mt7F2) read as maz-ze ; 48% Va5P, qu-muts-tseu 
(up! go!) Gen. 19: 14; bys meDN1 vera-khal- tash-sham. So Ex. 15: 1: 21, 
NS! DNA ga-Og-ga-a. Sometimes ‘the two words are even drawn into one 
in the writing; e. g. 055, for p2>-rva or 52> ma Is. 3: 15. So mya for 
mya. Comp. Lat. reddo for re-do ; Ital. alla for a la; Neapol. le llagreme 
for le lagrime. [All these are mere niceties in reading ; have no effect on 
the substantial forms of words; and are regulated, as has already been said, 
by no fixed principles] . 

(2) When the final consonant of a closed syllable is designed 
to be so pronounced as to make the preceding syllable sharp, a 
Daghesh forte euphonic is added to it. 

E. g. "233 (for "239), Deut. 32: 32, comp. Gen. 49: 10, Ex. 2: 3. Is. 57: 6, 
58: 3. Job 17: 2. 1.Sam. 28: 10. Ps. 45: 10. [Unless the student knows 
this, the Daghesh in question will greatly perplex him. But the cases of 
this nature are few; and the whole matter is merely one of euphony, or at 
most it belongs merely to tradition, and is controlled by no fixed principles]. 

On Grecian monuments orthography is found like to the above; e. g. 
agurotos, tekecotat, Acoxdynios. So in the old German of Luther’s time, 
anndere, unnsere. 

(3) The final tone-syllable in a verse or a clause, is some- 
times furnished with a Daghesh forte (§ 29. 4), in order to give 
notice of a little more delay and emphasis upon it. 

7 


50 § 20. DoUBLING OF THE CONSONANTS. 


BE. g. 2m for sm, Ezek. 27: 19; abr for 5414, Job 29: 21. Is. 33: 12. 

&. On the other hand, [the same nicety in preserving the 
traditionary pronunciation] has omirtep the Daghesh forte in 
many cases where it belongs by analogy: 

(a) Always at the end of words, i. e. in the final sound, for 
this syllable cannot normally be sharpened. As a compensa- 
tion for the Daghesh omitted, the vowel of the syllable is usually 
lengthened. ' 

The Hebrews sounded a final syllable with a double letter (implied in 
the Daghesh omitted), as we do in all, call, small, i. e. with a long vowel. 
So doubtless in Latin, fél, Gen. fellis (two ’s); mél, Gen. mellis; also old 
German val, Gen. valles, (§ 27, 2). Thus 1x for 5% (1 with Dag.); "x75 for 
izs5 (1 with Dag.). Exceptions are few; e. g. MX (short vowel), so M3, 
Ezek. 16; 33. 

(b) Very often is Daghesh omitted in the interior of a word, 
where it would by analogy be inserted. 

E, g. 0°%—22 ham-bhaq-shim, rapidly pronounced instead of DWP22F 
ham-mebhaq-q°shim. [This shows why Daghesh lene is omitted in the 3 of 
the first word]. Comp. Greek dito for wAdsto. 

(c) Daghesh forte is altogether excluded from the Guiturals ; 
§ 22. 1. 

Remarks. In the case (b), Daghesh cannot be omitted, when it is essen- 
tial to preserve the nicety of the form of a word; nor can it be omitted even 
in the Aspirates, when essential to guide their pronunciation ; e. g. HBX 
akhap-p°ra (not T72D28 *kaph-ra). In regard to words in general, the regular 
practice is to insert Daghesh forte wherever it belongs ; yet practice not unfre- 
quently omits it as stated above; and in the Praeformatives 2 and *, it 1s 
usually omitted ; e. g. 92375 for "235; misao for mwa%22 ; and so P2725, 
“m=, and also in such cases as 1551 (for 1>5m), "297 (for 237). Sometimes 
a vowel or half yowel is put under a letter with Daghesh, in order to make 
the Daghesh still more audible; e. g. n22> for D2a>; mi2Z0 for Mad, § 66. 
4, 322p".—[All these are mere varieties of enunciation.] j 

Nore. In the later books, the Daghesh forte is sometimes compensated 
for by a long vowel; e. g. jn" for jmm, Hab. 2: 17; psa for pana, 
etc., 1 Chron, 21: 23. 


§ 21. 
Aspiration of the Tenues; when it takes place, and when not. 


The harder but more slender sound of the Tenues* (752733) 


* A technical name, given from the quality of the letter. 


§ 21. ASPIRATION OF THE TENUES. 51 


was probably the original one, out of which the weaker and 
more aspirated sound was formed, (} 6, 3. §13). The original 
hard sound is most purely preserved at the beginning of a word 
and after a consonant; while between two vowels, and in the 
end of a syllable, it is softened by the breathing accompanying 
the vowel. In accordance with this principle the Aspirates take 
a Daghesh lene: 

1. In the beginning of words, whenever the preceding word 
ends in a consonant which has no vowel; also in the beginning 
of a paragraph, sentence, or clause. 

E. g. j>7>» (> with Daghesh lene); ); ™prys. So mwsx ia Gen. 1:1; and 
whenever a distinctive accent err as UND inh Judg. 11: 5, (here, 
Zageph Gadhol, a distinctive accent, precedes the 3); but without a dis- 
tinctive it reads thus, j2-"77") Gen. 1: 7, (3 = kh). Even a seeming diph- 
thong (actually there are no such in Hebrew), produces the same effect ; 
e. g. 2 “IY Judg. 5: 15, (i. e. Yodh is a consonant here, § 8. 5). 


2. Daghesh lene is inserted, where the preceding letter is a 
consonant, destitute of a proper vowel, and having Sheva silent ; 
e. g. bR2Lp, 7294, mY2. On the contrary, after a Sheva vocal, 
Daghesh lene is omitted; e. g. 5331, 0722. 

Exceptions. (a) Those forms are excepted here, which have been de- 
rived, either by lengthening or shortening, from other forms containing in 
them any of the aspirated Begadhkephath ; e. g. 527" ridh-phu (not 5339 ridh- 
pu), because it comes from 539; 72372 (not sab), because it comes directly 
from 5°23. On the other hand, “br (my king) because it comes directly 
from ab3. So 3n23 (not 323) from an>. [This is all correct ; but it is 
still not quite a complete view of the subject. Loose prefixes do not usually 
occasion the Daghesh lene to be inserted ; e. g. 2524, 5922>, >B2, DbID, DEW. 
But usage varies; for we have BI lin-pol, and thes of like character. 
Closer forinative prefixes are considered as making a part of the word; and 
so we find 45D, 5D", ete., according to general rule.—S. | 

(b) In such forms as mN>Y, we should expect m (not m) because this let- 
ter seemingly follows a vowel. But then this vowel is a mere furtive one, 
and does not influence the letter that follows. Comp. § 28, 4. 

(c) The suffixes 7—, 03—, j2—, take the 5 aspirated or soft, because they 
are preceded by a Sheva vocal; § 57. 3, b. 

(d) The nature and place of the tone appears sometimes to affect the pro- 
nunciation; e. g. nif>> Num. 32: 4, but in Ps. 40: 15, mmED>. So j24p 
usually ; but in Ezek. 40: 43, 3927 (in pause). 

(e) Aspirates before m5— final fem. ending, usually omit Daghesh lene; 
e. g. mazda, mids, etc.; but not uniformly, as mi23n, ete. 


o2 - $22. QUALITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. 


(f) [Some words beginning with two Aspirates, viz. 33, 52, 53, admit 
a Daghesh lene, even when they follow a word ending with a vowel, and 
having a conjunctive accent; e. g. Jer. 3: 25, "waa FaDv2. So in Ex. 
14: 17. Is. 10: 19, al. But in respect to this point, editions differ. Besides 
all cases mentioned above, there are certain words that by usage claim ex- 
emption from the general rule; e. g. Is. 5: 10, "12x (from Eva); Cant. 8: - 
6, "BW" (from D°Dw4). Words after m1 may take Daghesh lene, because 
it is read as "258, with Yodh consonant in the end.—S. ] 

[ Remargs. In some of the detail, there are no fixed principles. The 
Masora, the Rabbins, Mss., and editions, differ from themselves and from 
each other, in regard to some cases. Nor is this of any importance to the 
student. The most he needs to know is, when Daghesh is forte, when com- 
pensative, when merely euphonic, and when lene. The euphonic and lene have 
nothing to do with the meaning of words, but only with the mode of pro- 
nouncing them. It is owing to differences in regard to the pronunciation 
merely, that there are so many seeming anomalies in respect to Daghesh lene. 
The same is true of Daghesh euphonic. The student should know this; and 
this knowledge may save him much useless labour. In Greek, examples are 
not wanting of a similar variation in certain letters; e. g. Poi&, Gen. tetzos, a 
variation of the commencing sound, without affecting the sense of the word. 


228] 


§ 22. 
Qualities of the Gutturals. 


The four Gurrurats, 8,45,m,%, have a sound peculiar to 
themselves, on account of certain qualities now to be stated, 
which they possess in common, but in regard to which they are 
divisible into two classes, viz. ¥ and » the more slender, and 
sand © the more hard and full. 

1. The Gutturals cannot be doubled; and therefore cannot 
receive a Daghesh forte. The difficulty of doubling such as- 
pirated sounds, is apparent to all who make the experiment, 
The natural consequence of not doubling a Guttural, is to com- 
pensate for want of duplication by lengthening the preceding 
vowel, when this can be done. This rule applies specially to 
x and >, the weak Gutturals. The stronger ones, 4,5, can 
more easily bear a sharpened sound, than the weak ones, and 
thus imitate as it were a doubling; and therefore short vowels 
may be retained before them, [inasmuch as the compensation is 
less needed. | 


E. g. as to 8 and 9, a3 (not Y2N4); 2H (not jn). Aston andr, 


§ 22. QUALITIES OF THE GUTTURALS, 53 


wann, xin, where a kind of duplication—ha"-bho-desh, bha-hu—is easily 

made, It is on this account, that the older grammarians speak (not unapt- 

ly) of a Daghesh implicitum, occultum, or delitescens, in this case ; e. g. D°MN 
== °mN; and so of o°mD, oon, and the like. See also § 27, 2 


2. The Gutturals most easily and most mere take the 
vowel Pattah before them; and this because it stands organically 
related to them. [Gutturales amant Pattah|. This matter is 
regulated thus: 

(a) When before a Guttural there occurs analogically an i, 
é short, or é, 6 long and pure, i. e. merely prosodial, the Pattah 
takes the place of these. 

E. g. 93 for 551; 2724 for 220. Still more certainly does this take 
place, if such was the original form, or a kindred form. Thus, Kal mou) ; 
Imper. 1235; Imperf. n>v"; Piel mbw (not mv). So in “22, the original 
was "32; so ‘Tiar3 (not 75"). 

(b) If the vowel is long and immutable, as i, 5, —, and (some- 
times) —, (§ 25. 1), it remains, but glides off with a short a 
(Pattah furtive), which is written under the Guttural. But this 
takes place only in a final syllable. 

E. g.a99 ruthh, >t) sha-lu*hh, m7 rethh, 29 re’, i235 ga-bhoth, m>un 
hish-li*hh, ete. But any accession to the close of the word throws out the 
Pattah furtive, which can stand only in the closing syllable; e. g. "755 ru- 
hhi (my spirit), ete. The Seventy put « for Pattah furtive; e. g. m2, Noe. 

Nore 1. Sometimes, but not uniformly, the Guttural operates on the 
vowel which succeeds it; e. g. 923 (for 733), >2B (for 532). Itis only where 
the A-sound is otherwise admissible, that it is admitted here [in the room 
of the normal vowel]; ¢. g. in the Imp. of prt, i. e. pst, Imperf. prt. 
But if a particular vowel is essential to the form, the Guttural does not 
change it; e. g. one", brim (not >ri4). 

Nore. 2. Seghol is’ not unfrequently employed before Gatturals instead 
of Pattah, i. e. in the commencing syllable, (not elsewhere) ; e. g. Yan, "ban. 
In forms without a Guttural, the {(—) here would be a short Hhireq o% ) eer 

When a syllable begins with a Guttural and ends with a Daghesh-forte 
letter, short Hhireq (the normal vowel) is retained; e.g. >>5, min, nun. 
If by any modification the Daghesh forte is dropped, then Seghol comes 
back before the Guttural ; e. g. /)"I%, const. ji91m; 7A, const. ya. 

>. Instead of Sheva simple (—), the Gutturals usually take 
one of the composite Shevas (§ 10. 2); and this is the principal 
use of composite Shevas. 

E. g. 5Ups, 322, 3P21, API. 


o4 § 22. QUALITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. 


4., When, in the interior of a word, a Guttural ends a closed 
syllable, and so should have under it the syllable-divider (silent 
Sheva), it often retains this appropriate simple Sheva; and 
more especially when the syllable has the tone; e. @. be. 

But a like syllable coming before the tone, aaaie (not al- 
ways) adopts a composite Sheva (instead of the simple one), 
which is determined, as to its kind, by the preceding vowel. 


E, g. 20m" (also 20m); ur (also Fw); Pr (also Prm). But if 
the letter that follows the Guttural, by any change of the word, comes to 
have a simple Sheva, then the composite Sheva under the Guttural of ne- 
cessity is changed into a proper short vowel of a kindred nature; e. g. 
spi? (instead of spi? which is unpronounceable); 1723" (instead of 
ntass); 12M (instead of 125M), ground form 5px. 

Nore 1. Simple Sheva under the Guétturals, grammarians name hard, 
(23); while Sheva composite is called soft (59). See further under Gut- 
tural Verbs, § 61—64. 

Note 2. As to the choice of the composite Shevas, the following principles 
may serve as a guide: (a),M, 2, at the beginning of words ordinarily 
take (~); but & takes (—); e.g. 44, Tian, Tay, but with N, as TON. 
Yet when the word receives an accession, & may take (— ) under it; as 
"bx, but 52"X. So before Maqgeph; e.g. >>x, but with Maqgeph, Sox, 


Gen. 3: 11. Comp. § 27. n. 5. 
(b) In the middle of words, the choice is directed by the vowel which 


would normally and analogically precede; e. g. 22, Hiph. 7235 (regular 
form is as >5Qph) ; Inf. Hiph. tvaz7 (because the regular form would be 
as >>upn). Perf: Hophal, ash, (regular form as >upM). Other changes 
see in § 27. Note 2. 

5. Resh (7), which the Hebrews utter in a guttural way (see 
p- 22) shares with the other gutturals only the qualities or pow- 
ers described under No. 1 above, and partly of No. 2. 

(a) Usually it cannot be doubled; and as a compensation, 
the preceding vowel is (normally) always lengthened, if it can 
be. 

E. g. 373 (not 923); 772 (not 773). 

(b) When a short vowel goes before, this vowel is changed 
into Pattah; but not uniformly. 

E. g. 8721 vay-yar, (also Mx); 705s for 9054 vay-ya-sdr, and also for 
“81. 

Nore. In a very few words,“ appears with a Daghesh forte, i. e. is 
doubled ; e. g. 7772 mor-ra, Prov. 14: 10; 32w shor-rekh, Ezek. 16: 4, The 


§ 23, FEEBLE GUTTURALS. 55 


Arabians double it, and the Seventy translate M7” by Sa¢ééa. There are 
also some few cases in which the vowel before Resh is not lengthened ; 
e. g. $19 (for 57772) 2 Sam. 18: 16, 


§ 23. 
On the feeble sounds of the Gutturals 8 and *. 


I, The Guttural » loses the feeble and scarcely audible 
sound which it has as a consonant, whenever it would stand at 
the end of a syllable without a proper vowel, i. e. when it would 
analogically be pointed with a silent Sheva. In such cases it 
seems merely to prolong the vowel which precedes. 

E, g. 832, 822, NT, NSO, 840, ONS, TIN. This is the case 
with all vowels before & at the end of a syllable ; but the short ones in such 
a case are prolonged ; e, g. 8X72 for N¥2; NY07 for RYO, ete. 


2, Aleph (8) retains its consonant and guttural power, 
whenever it begins a syllable or word, e. g. V28, 10ND, DEND. 
Yet, 

(a) It loses its consonant power, when, having a composite 
Sheva under it and a short vowel before it, these vowels coa- 
lesce or are contracted, and thus become a long vowel in the 
place of a proper short vowel. 8 is then quiescent. 

E. g. “2X> usually written and read “¥aXb; so >EN5 for 54x35 DSN" 
(with d obscure = 0) for >28. 

(o) When the letter that precedes 8 has a Sheva, and 8 itself 
a long vowel, the preceding Sheva is dropped, and the long 
vowel put in its place. & then becomes quiescent. 


E. g. 82 for bx75, Neh. 6:8; D°xch for mxoh, 1 Sam 14: 33; ony 
for Do); DWN for nuina. In some cases even other preceding vowels 
are affected, in order to carry out this method of abbreviation ; e. g. pRpaws 
for dx37259; maN272 for max>2 . [That is, the last letter of the closed penult 
syllable being required in the ultimate, the short vowel in the penult is 
lengthened, as in the first case, or shortened into Sheva, as in the second.] 

If, in these contractions (as they may be called), the vowel which is to 
stand before & happens to be a Pattah, it may remain without prolongation ; 
e. g. "F9N) for "7589; "25N> for "77N2; MNIP? for MXIP?. 


3, When 8 is quiescent, not unfrequently a + or a * is put in 
its room, as being more homogeneous in case the vowels 6 or 
é, i, are required. 


56 § 23. FEEBLE GUTTURALS. 


E. g. ‘ia instead of “kta; 5% for Dx1; 7th for PN; 4D for Xd, 1 
Sam. 2: 16 (Kethibh). At the end of a word, 5 is not unfrequently used 
for 8; e. g. Mp2" for X22, Job 8: 21. 

4.. Quiescent 8 sometimes is dropped entirely. 

E. g. *nx> for smxgt; indo for smb Job 32: 18; “vak (always) for 
sank; miuind for minwnb, Is. 37: 26. 

Nore 1. In Aramaean the 8 is more evanescent than in Hebrew. In 
Arahic, on the contrary, as a consonant it is more permanent. But here it 
is often employed to designate d@ long; while in Hebrew, the use of it 
merely for this purpose is very rare; e. g. BNP for OP, Hos. 10: 14. See 
§8. 3. ' 

Nore 2. In Syriac, (where is no proper Sheva), 8 at the beginning of 
words takes a proper vowel, mostly E; e. g. DER, Syr. ekhal. Hence in 
Hebrew, several words imitate this, and instead of a composite Sheva un- 
der &, they take a proper vowel; e. g. “it8 for 7it8; Dy>ak for obo; 
mivay for mina. 

Nore 3. An Arabism it may be called, when 4, at the end of a word, 
and not belonging to the root, is followed by a_ quiescent, or rather an ofi- 
ant, %3 e. g. 8422 for 1235 Josh. 10: 24; xray for 134, Is. 28: 12. So also 
nop: for "pr; 81> for 15; NBN for ipx. Different from this is Sin, x74, 
see §32, Note 6. . 

5. He () is stronger and more steadfast than 8. This 
loses its aspiration very rarely in the middle of a word ;* it may 
preserve it at the end of a word, and is then marked by a Map- 
piq (=), §14. 1. 

Sometimes, where a Mappiq would analogically belong, the % omits it, 
which signifies that it is eated as quiescent; e. g. 4> (7 with a Raphe) for 
m> Num. 32: 42. Job 31: 22. Ex. 9: 18. ‘ 


But He (mn) between a prefix and the body of a word, and 
not belonging to the root of the word, is often and even usually 
omitted, while its vowel falls back upon the prefix. 

E. g. "252 for “pan>; yysa for yarns; jor for jnviny. The Sheva 
of the prefix is merged in the vowel that falls back into its place, by reason 
of dropping the 4. In other cases, a prefix with a full vowel expels both the 
n and us vowel ; e. g. 2 for O73. 

He (*) consonant, when a penult letter, together with the 
vowel of the syllable in which it stands,is not unfrequently con- 





* In a proper name, 5 sometimes quiesces in the middle of a word, because it is 
compounded of two words; e. g. Ssnv3 a-sa-el,naxn1p. So mipcnbs Jer. 46: 20. 
The Maqgeph shows the quiescent = , in the last example. 


§ 24. FEEBLE LETTERS. 57 


tracted so that a new long vowel of a diphthongal nature arises, 
and the » is either dropped, or becomes a mere Quiescent. 


E. g. 55050 (his horse) is written 05> or MOO; [sometimes fully, with 
a suffix, as 425]; and so in verbs with a suffix pronoun, Up (he killed 
him) arises from "7>up. 

Nore. In the form Md5D, we see the quiescent, instead of M vocal as in 
noid. But usually the 4 at the end of words stands, (or rather, did stand, 
when no vowels were used in writing), as the representative of several vow- 
els, viz. of a, é, 6, @ (Seghol long); e. g. HUN, Hb, HDs, >a, Moa. = [Now, 
since the vowels are supplied, it is merely quiescent or otiant,* in such 
cases]. But it should be noted, that 4 is not always employed for such a 
purpose, when the vowels above named end a word: for, (a\ Sometimes, 
(in the Aramaean manner), 8 is employed in the room of such aM otiant 
or quiescent; e. g.(where d long is to be expressed at the end of a word) 
ND for MIU, Ps. 127: 2; Nw (to forget) for Mw, Jer. 23: 39, ete. (b) When 
the final vowels are 6 or é long, 1 is put for the first, and » for the second, 
instead of 5; e. g. iN7 instead of HN; "BN instead of HDr. 


§ 24. 
Mutations of the feeble letters, 1 and*. 


The Vav (1=v) and Yodh ("=y) areso weak and soft, and 
approach so near to the corresponding vowel-sounds wu and 4, 
that they easily flow into these vowels. According to the re- 
lations of sound and the character of grammatical forms, vari- 
ous solutions and changes are connected with these character- 
istics; a general view of which is here given, while a particu- 
lar account of them will be given in the sequel, as they may re- 
spectively occur. Specially important is this, in the formation 
of weak roots, in which a radical \ or * occurs, ($68, seq. § $4. 
III—VI.) 

1, The cases in which ‘ and * give up their consonant pow- 
er and flow into vowel-sounds, belong principally to the first and 
last syllables in a word. In the middle, they for the most part 
retain their consonant-power. ‘The principal cases follow: 

(a) When ° or * would stand at the end of a closed syllable, 
would have a vowel before them, and a silent Sheva under 


* [In the older grammars, a letter is called otiant (otiatur) when it is neither a 
proper consonant, nor coalescent with a homogeneous vowel, and has no force or 
sound; like / in would.] 


8 


58 § 24. FEEBLE LETTERS. 


them, the weak letter gives way, and flows into the preceding 
vowel-sound, [when it is homogeneous]. 

E, g. At the beginning of words, 2w1n for 3WIT or 3B; yP? for yey; 
myinna for mama; at the end, “xr (li for liy); nwy for 1ivD d-suv 
(comp. minwy ¢su-voth, 1 Sam. 25: 18, Kethibh). After pure w and i, the 
quiescence in question always takes place. 

But if the preceding vowel be heterogeneous, then, the consonant power re- 
mains; e. g. ">t sha-lev, 11 ziv, ia goy, "23 ga-luy. When Pattah would 
normally precede, then a kind of diphthongal é and 6 are formed. (See be- 
low, 2. 5.) 

(b) Not unfrequently do they quiesce, when a Sheva vocal 
precedes them. 

E. g. Cases are frequent, like xia for Sin bevo; Dip for Dip q°vom. 
When * and * come at the end of a word, and have a Sheva immediately 
before them, they always quiesce ; e.g. "78 for "75 pir; s39 for "7" (apoco- 
pate of m7). ¥ geet 

(c) Rarely, when a full vowel precedes and immediately fol- 
lows; [yet cases of this kind are numerous enough to establish 
the principle]. 

E. g. Dip for Dip ga-vom; Dp for Dp qa-vum. In Syriac, where these 
feeble letters are still weaker, "and “are read as J. In like manner, & in 
Hebrew is there read e. So the Seventy seem to have pronounced ; for 
they write N355" by ‘Tovde ; Pm¥7 “Joudx. This explains the Syriac fashion 
of drawing back the vowel belonging to 4 or", to the preceding letter, 
which has only a simple Sheva vocal; e. g. jinn"> for jiomD, Ece. 2: 13 ; 
nbit for 2h", Job 29: 21. 

2. After such contraction the vowel is normally long. As 
to the choice of the vowel, the following principles guide it: 
viz. 

(a) When a word, without the weak letters, would normally 
have a vowel homogeneous with them, the same vowel-sound 
continues in the case before us, and is merely to be lengthened. 


E, g. au"Zfor 20% (like bups); aun for 315. 

(b) When short a (Pattah) comes before ‘ or”, then arises a 
diphthongal 6 or é, (see §7, 1). 

E. g. 2285 for awn; awh for sw; Nbi> and also n> .* 





* Examples where short @ does not contract, are not unfrequent; e. g. peat 
1 Chron. 12: 2, Bx*o°s Hos. 7:12. *nibv Job 3: 26. Sometimes both forms coex- 
ist, as mdiy and bag above, and so on const... Analogous to the contraction of 
ni , Const. nin; 73, const. 4°9. 


§ 25. IMMUTABLE VOWELS. 59 


(c) Where the preceding vowel is heterogeneous, but is es- 
sential to the form, it swallows up the weak letter. 


E. g. 87" instead of tom; op for BYP; Ma for ">a ga-lay; M>v for 


"bw .* 
Nore. An original *— at the end of a word, (a) When the sound ii (—e) 
is to be introduced, becomes —, (for the combination "— occurs not at the 


end of a word); e. g. 923° for 355 (§ 74. 1); mxya for “N79; “Tu and also 
mye. When any accession is made to the ending n-, the original (for 
which the 7 is here put) often reappears ; § 91, 9. Note. 

(6) When the A sound (—)is characteristic and predominates, the "— goes 
into H—; as MPa, Ms, Mds, for "3, "Da, “ba. 


§ 25. 
Immutable Vowels. 


What vowels in Hebrew are firm and immutable, can, with 
certainty and completeness, be determined only by the nature 
of grammatical forms, and by a comparison with the Arabic, 
whose vocalism exhibits itself in a purer and more original 
manner than the Hebrew. ‘This is specially applicable to the 
vowels essentially long, in distinction from those which are long 
merely in a rhythmical way, 1. e. extended agreeably to the laws 
of tone and of the formation of syllables, and which, having 
arisen from short vowels, by a change of tone or by a new divi- 
sion of syllables, again return to their original shortness. The 
beginner should carefully note the following principles: 

1. The essentially long, and therefore immutable vowels of 
the second and third classes, 7, @, é, 6, are normally designated 
by their corresponding vowel-letter, in the unpointed text. In 
the ordinary text, both are combined, viz. the vowel-letters and 
the vowel-points, for their designation. 


_ E. g. The vowel letter of 7, é, is“; that of u, 6,is 1. Both are combined 
thus: "—,"—, 4, i. Examples: mtva, 525m, d931, dip. When the same 
vowels are written defectively, i. e. without the vowel-letters ({ 8, 4), this is 
an exception to the general rule; e. g. Mw, dar, mibp, etc. So on the 
other hand, when pure and mutable vowels take a vowel-letter, (as 2p* is 
sometimes written >iDP*), then the vowel-letter is a mere fulcrum of the 
vowel and is otiant, or merely orthographic. 


* The Arabian often writes x41, but speaks it as ga-la. So the Seventy; e. g. 
"2%, Zwa. The Arabians can also write xbw for 143. 


60 § 25. IMMUTABLE VOWELS. 


2. Immutable Qamets (=) has no regular representative 
among the consonants. In Arabic, the Aleph is constantly em- 
ployed to designate it; but this is rare in Hebrew, (§9, 1. § 23, 
4, note 1). One must therefore betake himself to a knowledge 
of forms, in order to determine. See, for example, § 83. Nos. 
6. 13. 28. 

The very numerous cases in which the connection of & with a preced- 
ing vowel is accidental, do not belong to this category; e. g. N¥2, ONS2; 
Nx, "8472; [in which examples the second and fourth words show, that 
the 8 which follows long vowels in the first and third, does not make those 
vowels immutable. ] 

3. Fixed and immutable are also the short vowels, in a 

closed syllable ending with a Daghesh forte; asin3z. Of 
the same character are the vowels, when they stand in a closed 
syllable followed by another of the same character. 

E. g. waa>2, Pay, D7. 

4.. Immutable too are those vowels which stand before a 
Daghesh forte implied, but not expressed, (forma dagessanda). 

Of course the Daghesh is omitted in the Gutturals (§ 22, 1), and such 
immutable vowels occur, therefore, before them; thus x77, put for 
PRN; PIB for FB; WIS for 72a. 


§ 26. 
Of Syllables, and of their influence on the length and shortness 
of vowels. 

To obtain an adequate view of the laws, in accordance with 
which the long and short vowels are chosen, or exchanged with 
each other, it is necessary to learn the theory of syllabication on 
which that choice or those changes rest. We must regard, for 
this purpose, in part the commencing sound (No. 1 below) ; 
and partly the final sound (Nos. 2—7 below), which last is the 
more important. 

J. In respect to the initial of a syllable, it should be noted 
that every syllable must begin with a consonant; for none in the 
language begin with a vowel. 

Norte. The only exception to the last remark is 4 (and), read as u in such 
cases as 233 u-me-lekh. Not so in 28, where & is a proper consonant, 
[although we cannot sound it.] 


2, As to the ending of a syllable, it may terminate: (a) 


§ 26. SYLLABLES. 61 


With a proper vowel, and it is then called an open or simple 
syllable; e. g. the first and last syllable in mvp. (See No. 3 


below.) 
(6) With a vocal Sheva, either simple or composite. 


E. g. 8 p®-ri, "35 bh?-tsi, ‘Up qa-t°-lu. Such are named hal/-syllables, 
or introductory syllables. (See No. 4 below.) ‘ 

(c) With a consonant; and it is then called a closed or com- 
posite syllable. 


E. g. The second syllable in >up qa-til, 32>. (See No. 5 below.) With 
these must be ranked syllables ending with a Daghesh forte, which repre- 
sents a consonant, as dup qat-tel. (See No. 6 below.) 


(2) With two consonants; as in #>2zp. The vowels belong- 
ing to each, next claim our attention. (Nos. 3—7.) 
2. Open or simple syllables normally have long vowels.* 


These may be either with or without the tone; e. g. 43, "2D, 35; 
bbp, 255, sk. Qamets isa predominant long vowel, in an open syllable 
before the tone, (the fore-tone vowel); e. g. D5>, DIP", >&p; but sometimes 
Tseri, as 25) .f 

Exceptions to the general rule. Short vowels occur in open syllables, 
in the following cases: 

(a) In dissyllabic words, which, by the aid of a mere helping vowel, have 
been formed out of monosyllabic ones (§ 28, 4); e. g. 43% from 52; 32 
from 732; M2 from m72; 377 from 377. ‘The ground of this is, that the 
last mere helping vowel, in these cases, is sounded so short, that the de- 
parture from the monosyllabic form is hardly appreciable, and at least the 
theory of it remains. Yet sometimes the first vowel, in these cases, is ac- 
tually prolonged ; e. g. 29", but also 395, (§ 74. Note 3. 5). 


* This is afundamental law of the Hebrew language, as developed to us in the 
vowel-system with which it is furnished. But there is no absolute necessity in the 
case; for other languages frequently have short vowels in open syllables; e. g. é-yév- 
e-To, Arab. qa-ta-la. It would rather seem, then, that the Hebrew, at an earlier peri- 
od, had, like the Arabic, open syllables with short as well as long vowels. The pre- 
sent pronunciation of it probably has been modified by the mode of publicly reading 
it, i. e. with solemn, protracted, cantillating tone. 

+ The Arabic employs a short vowel for the fore-tone vowel; the Chaldee has She- 
va vocal, as jind, Dips, Sup, 225; and in Hebrew, when the tone is moved for- 
ward, Sheva takes the same place, § 27, 3.a. The usual long fore-tone vowel of the 
Hebrew, however, should not be regarded as having been artificially made, because of 
the tone which follows, but rather as an original vowel in this dialect; and the circum- 
stance, that it stands before the tone, has contributed to preserve it, although, when 
the tone is moved forward, it is shortened into a Sheva. 


62 § 26. SYLLABLES. 


(b) In certain forms of the suffixes, [with the tone]; e. g. "I>up, 7525, 
(with change of tone, 473"). 

(c) Before © local (so-called), which does not take the tone; [e. g. mS3 
(to Babylon); but a short pure syllable is not frequent, in such a connec- 
tion]. 

Thus far all cases of short vowels, in an open syllable, appear in this con- 
dition only when they have the proper tone to aid them. But other cases 
occur, of the like nature, when they are aided only by the half-tone accent, 
i. e. Methegh ; viz. 

(d) Before the composite Shevas, as —, 
iPpB. 

(e) In certain Segholate forms, when they receive increase at the end ; 
e. g. 7228 po-dl-kha, n° Shé-ra-shim, (comp, § 9. note, No. 2). 

Nore. The first syllable i in DAN, WI, and the like, does not belong 
to this category, for it precedes a Daghesh implicitum. (See No. 6 below.) 


;.e. g. ayy, iON’, 


ae? tor 


4., There are some open syllables still shorter, viz., those 
which end in a half-vowel or vocal Sheva, ($10, 1. 2). These 
are so short, that they act the part of proclitics to the following 
re syllable. ‘yy 

g. "> lebhi, 197257 yil-m*-dhu, "5m hh°-li, 1525 po-‘lo. The modern 
porifeiete deny that these very short syllables are real syllables ; and 
they reckon them to the syllable that follows. It must be granted that this 
very rapid vowel hardly seems capable of supporting a full syllable; and 
clear it is, that such a syllable does not correspond well with the open syl- 
lable that has a full vowel, (No. 3 above). But after all, this so called hal/- 
vowel is nothing more than an abridgment of an original full vowel; just as 
the matter is conditioned in the Arabic, which has no Sheva. Even the 
Jewish grammarians, who were the authors of the vowels and accents, have 
themselves, in their dispositition of the Methegh, counted upon Sheva as 
making a syllable, (see § 16,2). For the sake of distinction, one may name 
the very short syllables in question, half syllables, [or proclitic syllables*]. 


5. Closed syllables, ending with a consonant, if they have 
not the tone, must have a short vowel, whether at the beginning 
or end of a word. 

E. g. MDb2, jinvin, mon, woh, ppSs, ops vay-ya-qom. The excep- 


tions are only casual and sacdouts e.g. ‘when a word loses its tone by 
reason of a Maqqeph; as naq-an> , Esth. 4: 8. 


When the tone is on a closed syllable, the vowel may be 





* [A reference to the Greek proclitics, will render the meaning of this very plain and 
significant. | 


§ 26. syLLABLEs. 63 


either long or short. But of the short vowels only (—) and (— ) 
are able to sustain the tone. . 

E. g. Long vowels: "35, 5p, 4p"; so in the penult, m2>p, msdép. 
Short vowels: bp, DAN, DSU; in the penult, m>bp, Sup". In two 
monosyllabic words, > and OX, short Hbireq may support a tone; but it 
is usnally removed by a Maqqeph, which makes the syllable toneless. 

G6, A peculiar kind of closed syllable is made by a Daghesh 
forte, which ends one syllable, and begins another, with the same 
letter repeated. 

E. g. "28 im-mi, ">> kil-li. Like other syllables, where there is no tone, 
these Daghesh’d syllables must have a short vowel; but tone syllables may 
have either a short or a long vowel; e. g. 126, in, nut, nah. Da- 
ghesh’d syllables cannot occur at the end of a word ; see § 20, 3. 

4%. Composite closed syllables sometimes end with two con- 
sonants, and can occur only at the end of a word. Naturally 
they take short vowels; but occasionally they have long ones. 

E. g. M2vp qa-tilt, sus) vay-yishb; with Tsere, 372, ‘73°. (But see 
§ 10,3; which suggests some doubt here). Usually such syllables are 
avoided, by introducing a helping vowel. 

Nore. In making out syllables, Sheva silent, after a short vowel, belongs 
to the preceding syllable; but Sheva vocal, whether simple or composite, 
belongs to the next following syllable, whether the yowel that precedes is 
long or short; e. g. Sheva silent, W272; vocal after a long vowel, M>v'p 
qo-t°la, oo>>inm ho-l*lim; with a short vowel before composite Shevas, 
{oxy ta-¢mo, dmx d-helo, 


§ 27. 
Changes of the Vowels, specially in respect to quantity. 


In respect to the changes which the vowels suffer by reason 
of flexion, the following maxims should be noted: 

(a) The changes are almost entirely limited to the dast and 
penult syllables of words. Seldom do they extend to the ante- 
penullt. 

E, g. 125, const. 923; ji721, const. ji93%; j73, const. ji. 

(b) The changes are mostly confined within their respective 
classes of vowels. Out of & comes short a and 4 [like our a in 
may|; € may make? and €; 6 may go into o and w; and so vice 
versa. But an a cannot become a wu. 


Exception. Pattah may go into short Hhireq and Seghol; (see Note 2, 


64 § 27. CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. 


8, below). Seghol abbreviated may arise out of either class of vowels; 
(see Note 4 below). 

The vowels which are here to be considered, in respect to 
changes, are the short vowels, and only those of the long ones 
whose length is affected by tone and rhythm: viz. 

I. Vowels long by extending the tone. Il. The corresponding short Vowels. 
ao ='@ in all, = a= ain hat. 
= &@ = aw in pain. 
ati ah Wate 
=o (Qam. Hhat.) = 0 in got. 
| — &=u in full. 


<= € = ai in gain. 
—. 6 = 0 in bold. 


Very short Vowels. 
“Ey ryt eae (Bhewas,,§ 10). 

With these should be compared what is said in § 9, on the character, and 
powers of the several vowels; also what is said in § 25, respecting the im- 
mutable vowels. 

Agreeably to the principles developed in § 26, the following 
changes occur: viz. 

1. (a) In the place of a vowel lengthened by tone comes a 
corresponding short vowel, whenever the first stands in a closed 
syllable from which the accent is removed, (} 26, 5). 

E. g. 5, minis (tone removed by Maqgeph, § 16, 1); so ja, BISA}; 
$5, oyn-d> (kil-ha-am). The like when the tone is shifted; e. g. DP?, 
pp's vay-ya-qom ; 329, 725, (comp. § 48, 2). 

(b) When an open syllable has a long vowel, and by flexion 
it is changed into a closed one, then the vowel is shortened. 

E. g. "8D, “DO; WIP, WIP qddh-shi; in these cases T'seri goes into 
short Hhireq, and Hholem into Qamets Hhatuph (6). 

(c) When a closed syllable, with T'seri or Hholem pure, 
comes, by accession to the word, to be followed by a Daghesh 
forte, these long vowels go into short Hhireq and Qibbuts. 

E. g. OX, AN im-mi; pr, "pr hhug-qi. N. B. The short % and w are 
pure and clear, and are regarded as shorter than short é and 6. 

2, The short vowels are prolonged in the following cases: 
viz. 

(a) When a closed syllable, by a suffix accession beginning 
with a vowel, loses its closing consonant in order that this con- 
sonant may be joined with the accession, the short vowel be- 
comes long. 


§ 27. CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. 65 


E. g. op, with suffix, up qeta-lo; 3m, 125 ha-bhu. 
(b) When a short vowel would normally stand before a 
Daghesh forte, and this by any change falls away, or when 


Daghesh is suppressed before Gutturals, the short vowel be- 
comes long. 


For the first case, see § 20, 3. a. For the second, see § 22, 1. 


(c) A short vowel is lengthened by coming before a Quies- 
cent (8,7, 1,"); e.g. 82a for xxa. (See § 23,1. 2. § 24, 2.) 

(d) When a pause-accent falls upon it; specially at the close 
of a verse, (§ 29, 4.) 

- When a word receives increase at the end, and the tone 
is thrown forward, the pure vowels (long and short), according 
as the nature of the case demands, may go over into Sheva vo- 
cal; and in some cases, they fall away so that only a silent 
Sheva supplies their place. 

E. g. DW, plur. mi28, but with suffix, vy, oni. Whether the pro- 
per vowel remains unchanged (pu, miaw); or becomes a half-vowel or 
Sheva vocal (*72%); or falls entirely away and goes into silent Sheva (327 . 
222); or which of the two vowels in dissyllabic words is changed or falls 
away; depends on the condition of the word and the laws of its declension. 


General principle. In dissyllabic nouns with pure vowels, 
when accession is made, the first vowel normally falls away. 
In verbs of like form, the second is dropped. 

E. g. “p5 (dear), fem. 57952. The same word as a verb, thus: “P", fem. 
2 
Thus, specially in the flexifn of dissyllabic nouns, (a) Qa- 
mets and T’seri pure of the first syllable, go into Sheva vocal; 
e. g. 25, plur. 5°29; 322, with suffix "22>. So in adjectives: 
dina, fem. m>i33. Also in verbs: aH, How. It should be 
noted, that the vowel which falls away, is the so-called fore-tone 
vowel of the ground-form; see §9, 1. § 26, 3. 

(b) The short or merely tone-long vowels, a, e, 0, of the last 
syllable, specially in the verbal forms, go over into Sheva. 


E. g. bup, fem. m>up; >vip, plur. b>yp; dups, plur. ups. Those 
words which have merely a _factitious Seghol, (which helps the pronuncia- 
tion of two consonants at the end of a word), drop this vowel entirely, and 
substitute in its place only the silent Sheva; e. g. 722; with suffix ">>. 
N. B. If the tone remains in the same place after accession as before, then 


9 


66 § 27. CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. 


the original vowel is retained, notwithstanding the word is lengthened ; e. g. 
ants, plur. sartin; >anD, nde. 

(c) An extension of the principles above detailed to words 
where accession carries the accent forward two syllables, instead 
of one, shows that in such cases they are shortened, the first to 
2 short, and the other drops the vowel entirely and takes silent 
Sheva. 

E. g. "25, plur. 2°92, but with a gravitone suffix, DANII, § 28,1. As 
to the shortening of a into the still shorter %, in a few cases, see below, 
Note 3. : 


Other changes of vowels, somewhat more anomalous, which 
arise from the relation of length and shortness? 


Nore }. The diphthongal 6 (1) derived from au, and also the 6 which 
comes out of an original d long (§ 9, 10. 2) is longer than wu; and the longer 
vowel, in case the tone is thrown forward, is sometimes changed into the 
shorter (5). E. g. pip2, second pers. mvaip3 (see in Parad. M. Niph.); 
Dina, fem. Mona, with suffix 50479; pina, fem. npama. In fact, the 4 is 
sometimes so short that it is even employed in Daghesh’d syllables; e. g. 
mpi hik-ka, Ps. 102: 5; %pim, Ezek. 20: 18—N. B. The same relation 
holds good between *— and *—, 

On the other hand 45 (when long) sometimes shortens itself into 6 short ; 
first it appears in a tone-syllable as 6 long, and then (the tone being remo- 
ved) it goes into short 6 (Qamets Hhatuph); e. g. nxps (normal Imperf. of 
pip), o>" (jussive Fut.), and with Vav conversive, Dp) vay-ya-qom ; (see 
Par. M. Kal.) In the same way, from *"— comes Tseri with tone-length; 
and when the tone is removed, Seghol follows; e. g. D°p" (normal Imperf. 
Hiph.), 5 (jussive form), then Dp agp With Vav conversive and retracted 
tone. (See Par. M. Hiph.) 

Nore 2. From short @ (Pattah), in a closed syllable, arises sometimes, by 
a further shortening, or rather by relaxing and clipping the sound, a Seghol 
(=) = short é: | 

(a) Sometimes by hastening toward the tone syllable which follows; e. g. 


Daghesh’d one (forma Dagessanda), but the Daghesh is omitted; as 722% 
Ex, 32: 3, for #285; ptm for >xpim. 

(b) Necessarily and constantly is this done, when the Daghesh forte is 
omitted by reason of a Guttural, and the Guttural has a Qamets under it; 
so that we have 4— for 4— or 5-, as in NHN, é-hhay, for "ns (from pl. 
DANN); so jit for Fi; tmp for wma; and thus always when Hheth(n) 
follows the short vowel.—But in respect to M and ¥, when they follow, 


§ 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 67 


the shortening into Seghol takes place only when the tone is thrown for- 
ward so much, that some hastening toward it is required in the utterance; 
e. g. OD“ for 5°55, (the singular with accent on the ground-form reads 

“nn, because the tone is proximate); so }42% he-d-von, (acc. on ult.) , but 
oon bhere the accent is on the proximate syllable)—Before & and “,, where 
syllables much shortened are not in place, (§ 22, 1), Qamets remains almost 
uniformly; e. g. MISNT, Span. Still, such cases as 72385 occasionally 
occur. 

(c) In syllables which end with two consonants; e. g. 22D , (Arab. Kalb), 
by the exchange in question comes to be 252, and then with the aid of the 
helping vowel (—) we come to the usual Segholate form, 225 ; so 233 ( jus- 
sive Hiph. form) would go, in like way, into Dam, and thence comes the 
usual day. In like manner the Seventy: pisvab2, Mehyioedén. 

Nore 3, In a closed and sharp syllable, which loses the tone, the & (Pat- 
tah) sometimes goes into short 7; e. g. 02725 for 0372; i572 for i772; so 
“mT>" goes into 4°m1>4.* Comp. above, po“. 

Nore 4, Besides the Seghol, which arises in cases like those in Note 2, 
there is also one which arises: (a) Out of Qamets (_ ) in a final syllable, 
(comp. Roma, French Rome, also the Arabic n5°>m, Hha-li-phe), e. g. 7 
and 72. 

(6) In a few cases Seghol arises even from an original uw; e. g. Bmx from 
an original B4m8 (Arab. ae ; see § 32, Note 2. So pM, from the origi- 
nal DIM>, (see § 8, 1. under Class II. U). 

Nore 5. Among the half vowels (composite. Shevas), (_) is considered as 
shorter than (,); and accordingly (—-) is shorter than (— ); e. g. D5N, 
NOT; MON, TaN; 0223, pl. bye222; "MISSI, "EN. 


§ 28. 
Rise of new Vowels and Syllables. 


1. If a word begins with a half-vowel (Sheva) syllable 
(§ 26, 4), and another syllable of the same nature is prefixed, 
this last half syllable takes a regular short vowel (usually short 
Hhireq), instead of its original half-vowel (Sheva). Gutturals 
usually demand that this short assumed vowel should be Pat- 
— tah. 

E. g. >b2, prefix the prep. 2 and we have Dba, which must be written 
and read boa; and in the same way >53> instead of dbp; “H> for "15>, 
MTS (hence mama , §24, 1) for M71 ; wan for wert. Sometimes these 





* Analogous to this is the change of a into % in Latin; e. g. tango, attingo ; laxus, 
prolizus. Comp. also the changes, mentioned in Note 2 above, of a into é, as carpo, 
decerpo ; spargo, conspergo. 


68 § 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 


forms are managed in such a way as to make the second Sheva a silent, instead 
of a vocal one, (for >b32 reads bi-n*phol), as in >B2> (lin-pol) Num. 14: 3; 
"312 (kiz-kor). [Usage varies here between these two methods of writing 
and reading. ] 

The like to this sometimes takes place in the interior of a word; e. g. 
"pwn (ri-sh°phe) and also "BW" (rish-pe); "W3x from DWN. 

The usual vowel here in Syriac is @ (€); in Chaldee it is as in Hebrew; 
the Arabic every where employs a short vowel instead of a Sheva. 

2. When the second Sheva, in such cases, is a composite 
one, then the vowel adopted by the preceding letter must be 
such as to correspond with it, so that we have ——,-—, —-. 

E. g. UND, TAY2, DSN, WMD, for AD, etc. According to § 16, 2. a, 
this new short vowel of course has a Methegh to support it. 

2. Sometimes a composite Sheva occurs first in order, and 
stands after an open syllable with a short vowel. In such cases, 
the composite Sheva goes over, of course, into the short vowel 
which corresponds with it. 

E. g. 1295 for 12"; 1252 for 43543; and so, 4>2_ po-ol-kha. 

4., At the end of a word, cases occur where a syllable ends 
with éwo consonants (§ 10, 3. § 26, yy But this is only when 
the last of these consonants is one of a harder sound (as », p), 
or else a Tenuis,* i. e. 3, 3,4, 7, (not 5,5). 

E. g. vies, pws, HOVP, Fass, TW, Bw. In the mean time most of 
these are somewhat unusual forms, and the harshness of them is commonly 
avoided by a helping [off-sliding] vowel between the last two consonants. 
This helping vowel is usually Seghol (—); but under Gutturals it is Pattaht 
(=), and under Yodh consonant, it is short Hhireq(-—). E. g. >3*4 instead of 
bans Wap for Wop; 722 for 32, rMbwt for HNdY, mha for m2. 

N. B. These short helping vowels never support the tone ; and they fall en- 
tirely away, whenever any accession is made to the close of the word. 

Remark. These helping vowels have often been called furtive; but er- 





* The Begadhkephath are called Tenues, when they have a Daghesh Jene in them. 

+ Aleph, however, is exempt from this rule; e.g. s48', Noa. Because of the fee- 
ble sound of x , the helping vowel may be dispensed with, and the word then becomes 
monosyllabic; e€. g. SOM, NPA, 

t In these and in analogous examples ({ 64, 2), the Daghesh lene in the final m 
shows that the sound of the helping Pattah is very short, and also that the derivation 
is from the form andy . (In this way mnpd ]a-qa-hhat, thou hast taken, is separated 
from the Inf. form with prefix preposition >, viz. nmp> 14-qi-hhath). Older gram- 
marians, misled by the theory about Pattah furtive (as they called it), pronounced 
mnie sha-la-hht. But no one reads nw as sha-ahhth, but as sha-hhath, 


§ 29. CHANGES OF THE TONE OR ACCENT. 69 


roneously. The Pattah under a Guttural, at the end of a word, which 
merely slides off the sound, is more properly named furtive ; (see § 22, 2, b.) 

5. Full vowels may arise out of half-vowels (Shevas), by a 
pause-accent falling upon them; see § 29, 4. 


§ 29. 
Of the Tone or Accent; changes of it and of the Pause. 


1. The leading tone of a word, as marked by the accents 
(§ 15, 2), rests, (a2) In most words, upon the last syllable; (b) 
Less frequently upon the penult syllable. 

E. g. (a) 52p, 955, 42%, DLP, (in the last two examples the tone 
goes forward to an adscititious syllable, in order to rest on the ultimate. 
(3) 2%». 232, RRER. 

A kind of secondary tone or counter-stress of the voice in re- 
spect to the leading tone, is marked by Methegh, ($16, 2). 
Words before Maqqeph lose the leading tone ($16, 1); [al- 
though they may have a Methegh, e. g. ">-n.] 

It is unnecessary to recount the penacuted words here. To mark them 
to the eye of the reader, the sign (—) is employed throughout this work ; only 
now and then the accent on the ultimate is so marked, for special purposes, 

In Arabic, the tone rests mainly on the penult ; sometimes on the ante- 
penult. The Syrians also, for the most part, accent the penult. The Ger- 
man and Polish Jews, in spite of the accents, read Hebrew with the tone 
on the penult. 

2. The original tone of a word is frequently shifted, by rea- 
son of changes which the word itself undergoes, or in conse- 
quence of its connection with other words. If the word receive 
increase at the end, the accent must be shifted one or two places, 
according to the length of the increase. 

E. g. 733, pl. b"437, with suff. 55927; 835, pl. owsp; mbdp, snbbup. 
For the vowel changes incident to such cases, see § 27, 1, 3. 

3%. On the other hand, the tone is often shifted from the last 
syllable to the penult. 

(a). In certain cases where a syllable is prefixed. 

E. g. an", anks; 20, 725; ps, Dp§. Accession by Maqgeph pro- 
duces the same effect; 5D'm, HOTA~>N, Prov. 30: 6. 

(6) When a monosyllabic or penacuted word follows a nor- 
mally accented syllable, the accent is thrown back in order to 
avoid bringing two accented syllables together. 


70 § 29. CHANGES OF THE TONE OR ACCENT. 


E. g. 7358, but $2 355N; oeb pdir instead of yb Odin Is. 41: 7.. See 
Gen. 1: 5. 3: 19. 4: 17. Job 22: 28. Ps. 2: 2. 

(c) On account of the Pauses; see No. 4. 

To avoid the concurrence of two tone-syllables, (b above), Maqgeph is 
sometimes employed, which throws off the tone of the first word. E. g. 
nii-amss. Ifthe penult be an open syllable, with a long vowel, the ac- 
cent is normally retracted. (See §47, note 1. § 50, note 3. § 51, note 2.) 

4., The Pause-accent not only changes oftentimes the nor- 
mal tone of words, but also occasions a variety of vowel-changes. 


By this name is designated the strong intonation at the close of a sen- 
tence, or of a distinctive portion of one, on which the preceding portion 
seems to lean, and which receives the greatest distinctive accents; e. g. 
yu, D127. The general principles are the following: 

(a) If the tone syllable has a short vowel, it becomes long. 

E. g. Sop, PUR; DT, Ds Mow, MPVs PIN. TN- 

(b) When the last syllable normally has the tone, but is pre- 
ceded by a vocal Sheva (half-syllable), this Sheva usually be- 
comes a long vowel, and the pause accent rests upon it; which 
makes the intonation more pleasant to the ear. 

E. g. Wbup, NawP; ANI, HNDD; Hyp, eps. The vowel substituted 
in these cases for the Sheva, is that which, in the ground-form, stood in the 
place of the Sheva; excepting that if this was short, it here becomes pro- 
longed ; e.g. ground-form >up, fem. with Pause Hyp. In the other exam- 
ples, the ground-form has a long vowel, viz. 822, >&p". If a composite Sheva 
be upon the half-syllable in question, then the corresponding long vowel is 
chosen; so "28%, in pause "38; "2M, in pause "bh. With simple Sheva, 
thus: ">, in pause "2. 

(c) This tendency to throw the pause-accent on the penult is 
shown ina number of words, [unlike in their structure to the 
preceding], which regularly draw it thither when opportunity 
occurs. 

E. g. SAN, TAN; Dk, "DN; AHP, Om. In other words occasionally 
the same ‘thing is done ; e. g. 19> (for 55) Ps, 37: 20; 493 (for 132) Job 6: 
8, seq., from Hy>. 

The principle in (a) above relates mainly to Pattah and Seghol. The 
last, however, is of itself strong enough to remain Hnepanged, in case the 
syllable is a Daghesh’d one; e. g. 25up%. 

In some other cases, fdfbad of Seghol as in 5254, Pattah is put in the 
final syllable, when it comes into Pause, as ent. So }PhnbR, in pause 
PRON, Judg. 19: 20. Even Tseri, at times, is exchanged in pause for 
Pattah; as 3h (for 3W) Is. 42: 22; desu, in pause >N30, Is. 7: 6. 


SECOND LEADING DIVISION. 


PRINCIPLES OF FORMS. 


OR 


CONCERNING THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 


§ 30. 
Of Stem and Root Words, (biliteral, triliteral, quadriliteral). 


J. The Stem-words of the Hebrew and other Semitic lan- 
guages have this peculiarity, viz., that by far the greater part of 
them consist of three consonants, to which the meaning is essen- 
tially attached; whilst the varying vowels seem only to desig- 
nate the various modifications of the original idea; e. 9. Dux, 
he was red, 058, red, 238, man, (properly the red one). Such 
stem-word may be either a verb, or a noun; and usually the 
language exhibits both at the same time. Still, it is useful and 
of much practical advantage to our first instruction in Hebrew, 
that one should regard the third pers. sing. of the Perfect, (one 
of the simplest of the verbal forms), as a stem-word, and all 
the remaining formations of the verb, and also of the noun, and 
of the particles derived from it, as derived from the Perfect. 

E. g. pas he was righteous, PIX, [APIS], righteousness, P"3% righteous, 
etc. The language, in its present state, does not always afford both a nom- 
inal form and a verbal one; e. g. >PO, Pa2, only as verbs; 332 the South, 
DUM nine, only as nouns. The living language doubtless had a correspond- 


ing verb and noun, in nearly all cases, as stem-words; but many of these 
are now lost. 7 


Nore 1. The Jewish grammarians called the stem-word a root (wi) ; 
and so, in Latin, radix was usually employed to designate the same thing. 
So the three stem-letters were called literae radicales, in distinction from the 


72 §30. sTEM AND ROOT WORDS. 


formative letters, which they called literae serviles. We employ, in, this 
work, the word root in a somewhat different sense; see Note 2. 

Nore 2. Many etymologists name the three stem-consonants, considered 
independently of the vowels and of enunciation, the root. From this sprung 
verbal and nominal stems; as in the natural domain of plants, (from which 
the figurative language in question was borrowed), the stems spring out of — 
unseen roots. So, according to them, 422 is root ; the verbal stem of which 
is J27 he reigned, and the nominal stem, 372 king. But the assumption of 
an unpronounceable root is an abstraction which leads us too far away 
from the actual condition of the language; and when we come to treat of 
this language as a matter of fact, it is much preferable to consider the con- 
crete verb as a stem-word. 

Nore 3. The three stem-consonants predominantly form two syllables in 
Hebrew. We should also reckon with these, those verbs which have a 
weak middle letter (4, "%), and which become monosyllabic only by con- 
traction; e. g. D5 (originally and normally), but as contracted, Dp. 

2, The ¢riliteral stem is so predominant in all the Semitic 
languages, that one must regard it as a leading characteristic of 
this tribe of languages. Even those dissyllabic nouns which 
seem to be original, because they designate a most common 
and simple idea, still arrange themselves as if they were deri- 
vates from ¢triliterals. EE. g. o8 (mother), with suff. "ax, as if 
from t28. So 38 father, mx brother, ete. 

On the other hand, ¢riliteral stems may often be reduced to 
biliteral elements, which, with a vowel between, constitute a 
kind of root-syllable ; and from this spring various triliteral stem- 
words, with different shades of meaning. Commonly such 
roots are primary biliteral roots. ‘They are easily discovered, 
when the stem has a weak consonant, or when the second and 
third letter of the root are the same. 

E. g. The stems 923, 313, 823, 527, have all the same essential mean- 
ing, viz. to thrust, beat down; and the stronger letters 7 (dakh) make a 
monosyllabic root. Yet, in some cases, the third consonant may be a strong 
letter. ‘To such a monosyllabic root a whole series of trissyllabic words 
may attach themselves, which have two radicals that remain the same 


throughout, and also have the same fundamental meaning. Here follow 
examples : 


From the root-syllable yp, (which imitates the sound of hewing), come 
yxp and nzp, to cut down; then AEP, PEP, WEP, to cut off, mow down ; 
then the figurative meaning, decide, determine ; and from this, xp, Cadi, 
judge. So the syllables wp, Op, are related to the preceding, and fromthe 


§30. sTEM AND ROOT WORDs. 73 


latter is DOP to cut into. Then we have 3p to‘ clip, Mp to shell off, strip 
off, destroy. Nextthe %, 0, of the biliteral root is spoken as a Lingual, and 
we have dup to kill, hew down, 22 to hew down, destroy, jp to hew off, to 
shorten, 522 to tear off, pluck off, 77> to hew down, to cleave. Somewhat 
weaker is the form 02> (with 5 instead of DP); and from this come 00> to 
cut off, shear off, 022 (Syr. to offer, kill offerings). Still further weakened is 
the root in 13 and 34; and herefrom is 11 to mow down, shear off, 14 to hew 
(cut off) stones, DIN, S13, D418, “I, to hew off, cut off, eat off; and the like in 
775 to cut into, 333 to hew down; comp. M33, 471. Once more; by chang- 
ing the Palatals into Gutturals, we have 12m, 1uM to hew stone or wood, 
727, Msn to cleave, divide, yi arrow (ozita, cleaver), 33M to sharpen, MT ar- 
row, lightning, and Mim to see, (cernere, to separate) , etc. 

The syllable 55 expresses the sound of humming, murmuring, the tone 
which is uttered with closed mouth, (Greek wim); thence m5, DMD (DN), 
Arab, nian, to hum, buzz; and further, 572 to be dumb, 273 to grow dumb, 
to be astounded, 

The root syllable 2", consisting of two tremulous letters, means, in the 
stems 339, 535, O97, U2, to tremble, quake; then emotions which excite 
trembling, as thunder (B25), dashing in pieces, smashing (32, 72"). 

Compare also the root syllable 13, with the idea of elevation, arching, (gib- 
bus); and see striking articles in the Lex. on 323; on "5, breaking in gneces ; 
o>, md, to lick, swallow up. 

The more mature consideration of this subject affords the fol- 
lowing results: 


(a) These roots, aside from actual use in word-stems, are mere abstrac- 
tions, and never employed by usage; they merely represent the hidden 
germs brought to light in the word-stems of language, Yet these latter, at 
times, are so abbreviated, that they present us with the mere elements of 
the root; e. g. BM he is perfect, >p light. 

(b) Most of the monosyllabic roots are those which imitate sounds ; and 
in this respect they accord sometimes with the Indo-Germanic stem-words; 
So EM, zintw (tim); NDI, dantw (dapw); F22, xokdntw; WIP, Lado, 
havF ave, e 

(c) The stems with harsher and stronger consonants, are, according to 
the general tenor of language ($6, 3), to be regarded as the older ones; 
those with more feeble letters as the later ones; which are therefore more 
frequently used with a metaphorical meaning. E. g. m3p, m5 to be smooth, 
deprived of hair, bald. Sometimes, however, the harder or more feeble tone, 
in the imitation of sounds, is essential: e. g. dba to roll (spoken of a ball, 
and of the rolling of the waves); "74 more in relation to a rough seratch- 
ing sound, — caigw, ciga, verro; 33M, to hew stones or wood, demands a 
stronger sound than 113, to cut down grass, to mow. 

10 


74 § 30. sTEM AND ROOT WORDS. 


(d) It should be noted, moreover, that consonants which are alike in 
strength or weakness more usually come together in root-syllables; e. g. 
YP, O>, 14, 74, (never V2, 74, O45, TP); PH, 19, (rarely 12); Up, a (not 
wa). Very seldom are the two first radicals the same, (like 77); or even 
very much alike, (as in Dm). On the other hand, the two last letters are 
very often the same, (§ 66) .* 

(ec) The softening down, (mentioned under (c) above), is sometimes so 
much, that the letters J,n, 7, as middle stem-letters, go even into vowels; 
e. g. UIT, Ws, to tread, to thresh, Vox , 7X (comp. 028), to squeeze, to press, 
etc. Comp., [for like omissions of weak letters], salvare and sauwver ; cali- 
dus and Ital. caldo, Neapolitan caudo, French chaud ; falsus, falso, Calabrian 
fauzu, French fauz. So in the English words walk, talk, stalk, [where 1 
loses its sound]. See § 19, 5. 

(f) But after all, the three stem consonants must oftentimes be regarded 
as belonging to the root, since all are required, in order to make out fully 
the sound to be imitated; 32", P29, P2¥, to straiten, to torment, &yyo, ango ; 
W771, lo tread; 023, Bogue, fremo, brummen, ete. 

Remark. A more complete observance of this: animated movement in 
the original elements of speech, is to be found in Gesenius’ Manual Lexi- 
con. It is important for beginners, that they should not regard the roots, 
and the meaning of them, as the work of a capricious and arbitrary law of 
a people remote from the rest of the ancient world, but as the fruit of a 
lively imitation of nature. He should consider these matters as standing 
in a natural connection, with the well known Jaws of speech that pertain 
to other nations. 

2. To a secondary formation of words belong the stem- 
words which have four, or even five, consonants. Of these the 
Hebrew has much fewer than its kindred languages, (specially 
the Ethiopic). This prolongation of the stem is brought about 
in a twofold way: (a) By the addition of a fourth letter. (b) 
By compounding and amalgamating two triliteral words, by 
which a quinqueliteral word is produced. 

Nore 1. Those prolongations of words, which arise from the repetition 
of one or two of the letters of any particular stem-word, are not reckoned 
to quadriliteral stems, but to conjugation-forms (§54). E. g. bop, >ubup, 
320,393. In like manner are reckoned the few words which are aug- 
mented by prefixing 8; e.g. many from 33, Aram. Conj. Shaphel, 37>3. 





* Letters which cannot stand together in a root, are called incompatibles. These 
are such as are very nearly alike; as 47, pa, 2, 25. But several have been erro- 
neously classed with these incompatibles, e. g. 5" , which often occurs, as in d=], 54h. 
These are softened down into 753, sath. Comp. ypatréce and ypa3dnv, oxrd and 
é6ydooc, and much in the Sanscrit which is analogous. 


§30. sTEM AND ROOT WoRDs. 75 


Nore 2¢to letter (a}. Between the first and second radical letter, / andr 
are often inserted; e. g. OD, DOWD; vray — wavs; npyds from 521; and 
in Syriac such a usage is frequent. This method of formation is analogous 
to that in Piel; and in Aramaean it is found with the same; as >>, pany. 
In Latin is the like prolongation; e. g. findo, scindo ; tundo, jungo ; out of 

Jid- comes scid- (oxeSaw); out of tud, jug. 

As to the end of words, / and n are the letters usually appended in order 
to prolong them; e. g. JT, stem 173; 5242 from O92; S534 from S33, 
dann from 395. (The ending el was probably a diminutive one, as in many 
languages) . 

Nore 8 fo letter (b). The compounding is usually so managed, that out 
of two stems none of the letters are repeated; e. g. D3"ES (frog) from “Dx 
to hop, and Arab. 28" marsh (lit. marsh-hopper) ; Rew (quiet) from “Dv 
(peaceful) and 4285 (at rest). Sometimesa weak letter is merely cast away ; 
as $>u2 from >u2 and 52. Sometimes bolder amalgamations take place ; 
as “% sinbp (6 Seve) from “35 and ‘3228, Dan. 8: 13. 

It should be added, that out of Qaodritiverels by a shortening process, 
Triliterals may be formed. Out of 535m to hop, comes 53m of the same 
meaning, and from this man partridge, (from its leaping motion); so musw 
from M7, out of SI, WU. , 

4., To an earlier stage of formation belong the pronoun- 
stems (§82, seq.), and also several of the particles, viz. interjec- 
tions (§ 103, 1). ‘These are as it were a rougher impression of 
speech, which does not conform to the ¢riliteral law, and fol- 
lows a freer method of formation.* Most of the particles, how- 
ever, attach themselves to nouns, as to the modes of formation, 
or are derived from nouns, although, on account of their enclitic 
nature they are often greatly abridged, so that their origin be- 
comes a matter of doubt. See § 97 seq. 


ag Nhe 
Of grammatical Structure. 


1. For the formation of words from stem-forms, and for 
their flexion, there exists two different ways; viz. internal change 
by alteration or exchange of vowels, and external by adding 
formative syllables. 

A third way, viz. by periphrasis, which makes use of several 


* Comp. Hupfeld, System der semitischen Demonstrativbildung, und die damit 
zusammenhingenden Pronominal-und Partikelbildung, Zeitsch. fir die Kunde des 
Morgenlandes, Bd. I. s. 124 seq. 427 seq. 


76 § 31. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE. 


words to convey an idea of relation instead of changing the 
forms, (e. g. the comparative degree in Hebrew, and several re- 
lations of cases), belongs more appropriately to the Syntax; 
where the reader will find it. 

The external mode of forming words by attaching formative syllables to 
them, (asis the case in the Egyptian), seems to have been the more ancient. 
Yet some of the stem-languages, e. g. the Semitic, along with this, have em- 
ployed the internal method at a very early period. In the youthful days of 
the Hebrew, the formative process was very active; which, however, at a 
later period declined, and one was necessitated to resort to syntactical 
periphrasis. 'The same progress is exhibited by the Greek, (including the 
new Greek), and also the Latin, taken in its Roman branches. Formation 
of words by agglutination is predominant both in old and new Egyptian ; 
that by internal declension, in Sanscrit and Greek. The Chinese is nearly 
without any grammatical structure, and everything is accomplished in a 
syntactical way. 

2, In Hebrew both methods of formation coéxist. The 
formation by change of vowels is quite manifold; e. g. >¥p, >Y&R, 
>op, >Up, up. But the other method is not wanting; e. g. 
>epnt; both may unite in one word, as in >vprnm. The method 
of formation by annexation, as in almost all languages, is com- 
mon; specially so in the formation of the persons of the verb, 
where the meaning of them is usually very plain, (see § 44. 
§47). ‘The gender also is marked by changes, both in the verb 
and in the noun. Declension to make out cases, is hardly 
known in Hebrew. 


CHAPTER I. 
OF THE PRONOUN. 


§ 32. 
Of Pronouns personal and separate. 


1. The Personal pronoun, (like pronouns in general), be- 
longs to the most original* and simple parts of speech (§ 30) ; 





* The high antiquity of the pronouns is evident from their most striking agree- 


§ 32. PRONOUNS PERSONAL. 77 


and is here treated of, because, in the flexion of the verb, it lies 
at the ground (§ 44. § 47). 

2. The monosyllabic leading forms, as marking the Nomi- 
native, are the following: 
Sing. 1. comm. "28, in pause ; Plur. 1. comm. ™n3x, (73), 


"BAR; "8, in pause (ax) we. 
m. Ons (8), in { m. DAN 
2. pause HDS thou.|~" | fi WAN, Mabe ye or you. 
J. A8(*AS, prop."fy). 
3 ( m. 815 he. 3. m. ans a nab 
| fi 8H she. fw, mh 


The forms which stand in parentheses are unusual. The arrangement 
of the whole, with the corresponding abridged forms (pronominal Suffixes), 
see at the end of the Grammar, in Paradigm A. 


NOTES. 
I. First Person. 


Nore 1, The form "238 is nearly as frequent in the O. Test. as 728. 
The first is found in the Phenician ; but in no other of the kindred dialects.* 
From the second are derived the suffixes (§ 33). In the Talmud, 72x 
scarcely appears; "28 is predominant. 

Note 2. The formation of the plural in this, and in the following per- 
sons, has an analogy with the plural-formation of the verb and the noun ; 
but still, like pronouns in other languages, it has more freedom and dis- 
crepancy of manner. At all events, 52728 is the plural of "328 (with an ex- 
change of 5 for ©), just as 338 is the plural of "38. The form 5:8, from 
which the suffixes proceed, occurs in the Kethibh only i in Jer. 42: 6. The 
curtailed form 522 occurs only six times; e. g. as in Gen, 42: 11. Num. 
32: 32. (In the Talmud, the form "28 has expelled altogether the longer 
forms; "28 is also rare in the same work. 

Nore 3. Only in the first person (sing. and plur.) is the pronoun of the 
common gender ; because the first person, present and speaking, needed for 
himself no designation of gender, such as was convenient to make in re- 
spect to the second who is addressed, and the third who is absent. (In 





ment with the old Egyptian ones, (the oldest of which we have any written mon- 
uments). See the comparison in Allgem. Lit. Zeitung, 1839, No. 80. 

* In Phenician, the first person is written 728, without the ending »-, probably 
sounded anekh. Plaut. Poen. V. 2, 35. Gesen. Mon. Phenic. pp. 365, 376, 437. 
A trace of this form is evident in the Ethiopic qa-tal-ku (Ihave killed). In old 
Egyptian it is ANK, (read anok). 


78 § 32. PRONOUNS PERSONAL. 


Greek, Latin, German, English, the second person, as well as the first, has 
no distinction of gender). 


II. Second Person. 


Nore 4. The forms of the second person, HAN, MAN; OFX, JAN; are con- 
tracted out of Mm3x, etc. The kindred languages express the 3 before the m : 
Arab. anta, fem. anti, plur. antum, fem. antunna. 'The syllable Mm express- 
es the essence of the word, see § 44,1. The an prefixed is a demonstrative, 
and gives to the form more firmness and independence. 

The 7 final of the sing. masc. is sometimes (in five cases) omitted, and it 
is written MN; e. g. in Ps. 6:4. But the Qeri always gives HmX, on the 
margin. As the vowels affixed in these cases to the Kethibh belong to the 
Qeri, the text may have actually read mx, as abbreviated, [or rather, as the 
old pronoun generis communis. ] 

The fem. form originally sounded “mx (for "— is a sign of the fem., prob- 
ably from 8"), so that "AN = thou she. (Comp. ">upm § 47, 2). So in 
Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic. This form appears in only a few cases, (e. g. 
Judg. 17: 2. 1 K. 14: 2); and it appears, also, in the corresponding personal 
ending of verbs, (e. g. “meUp, § 44, note 2), viz. in connection with suffixes 
(IIM>UP, § 58), The Yodh ("), however, was scarcely heard, (in Syriac it 
is written but not spoken), and therefore it came to fall away. In all these 
cases, the Jewish critics have supplied MX in the Keri for "MX in the Ke- 
thibh, (§ 17). The same final "— shows itself in some of the unusual forms 
of the suffixes; e. g. "3—, "2*—, (§ 57). 

Nore 5. Om8 and hx are curtailed forms of the plural, (comp. § 27, 
note 4, b), from DAMN (Arab. antum, Chald. j3m8, which form lies at the 
ground of some of the verbal-flexions, § 58) ; and j;m& and j*mX are formed 
in like manner as in the third person, 815 and 8°. Finally, jmX is a anak 
leyousvor, Ezek. 34: 31, (where some read jM&); and mmx (in some Codd. 
MimN) occurs only four times, viz. Gen. 31:6. Ezek. 18: 11, 20. 34:17, Re- 
specting the — at the end, see Note 7 below. 


Til. Third Person. 


Nore 6, The & in 855, 84, indicates an original after vowel-sound in 
these words, something like hua, hia; (like the e in the German die, old 
German, thiu, thia); and a trace of this is still preserved in the Arabic, huva, 
hiya; in the vulgar dialect, hua, hia. 

The masc. 817 is common gender in the Pentateuch, and stands for she 
as well as he. ‘The Punctators, however, have, in all cases where it stands 
for she, given to the form the vowel of the fem. 84, i. e. they have written 
it N14, indicating that it is to be read as 8°, (comp. § 17). But one should 
rather, after the ancient manner, read it 84m Au. 


§ 33. SUFFIX PRONOUNS. 79 


Nore 7. The plural forms 05, 54, are derived from Nin, 8°; just as 
mmx comes from HmX. In Arabic, where these pronouns sound hum, hun- 
na, the obscure vowel remains. ‘The m= in both forms has a demonstrative 
power, (comp. § 93,1). In the Chaldee, jim, am; the Arabic, humu ; and 
the Ethiopic, homw; there is an appended 6, w; which also appears in the 
Hebrew poetic forms of the suffixes, ia, i2— , 72—, (see § 57). 

Nore 8 The pronouns of the third person, 855, 8°, 05, j5, are also 
demonstrative, as well as personal, pronouns, (§ 120, 1). 


§ 33. 
Suffiz Pronouns. 

1. By the leading independent forms of the pronoun, as 
given in the preceding section, only the Nom. case, is desig- 
nated.* The Acc. and Gen., however, are made by curtailed 
forms of the same, which are appended to the close of verbs, 
nouns, and particles, (pronoun-suffies, or simply suffixes). 

E. g. 55, 3 (from x55), him and his. Hence sn*n>up, I have killed him, 
i050, his horse. Similar to this are several forms in Greek, Latin, and Ger- 
man; e. g. wat7j9 wou for matng éuov; Lat. eccwm for ecce eum; German, 
du hast’s for du hast es. But in Hebrew this is carried through the pro- 
nouns; as it is in Egyptian, Hungarian, and some other languages. 

2. In respect to the cases which these suffixes represent, let 
it be noted: 

(a) When appended to verbs, they mark the Accusative, (with 
some variations, § 119, 3); as sn~*nbup, L killed him. 

(b) When appended to nouns, they mark the Genitive, and 
take the place of possessive pronouns; e. g. "38 my father, like 
MUTNO OV = MUATIO eds. 

(c) Appended to particles, they mark the Gen. or the Acc., 
according to the nature of the particle. If this has a nominal 
meaning, then the Gen.; if a verbal one, then the Accusative. 

E. g. °m& with me, (lit. nearness of me), like the Latin mea causa; on the 
other hand, "225 behold me! 'There are a few adverbs, which require to be 
represented, in other languages, with the Nom. after them; see § 98, 5. 

(dq) The Dative and Ablative are made by prefixing appro- 
priate prepositions. 

E. g. > to or for, marks the Dative; 3 in, and 7 (72) from, designates the 
Ablative. These particles are often joined with suffixes; as > to him, 13 
in him, 027 (for 5372) from you. 


* See one exception, in § 119, 2. 


80 - § 34, DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 


3. Some of these suffix-pronouns are derived from older forms 
of independent pronouns, now extinct. 


E. g. 5 (thee) comes from such a form as 28 (thou), which is altogether 
analogous with Hmx (thou). The same is the case with the suffixes of 
verbs, (§ 44, 1). 

4, The verbal and nominal suffix are usually of the same 
form, but not always. 


E. g. a8, with suff "ax father of me, or my father, (the suff. "— constitu- 
ting the Gen.) ; but with a verb, "23 p , he killed me, (suff. "2—, being in the 
Accusative). 

N. B. For a full view of the independent pronouns and their correspond- 
ing suffixes, see Paradigm A, near the close of this volume. For the suf- 
fixes of the Verb, with explanations, see § 57 seq., and comp. Par. C.. For 
the suffixes of Nouns, see § 89 and comp. Parad. § 91. For the Prepositions 
with suffixes, see § 101. 


§ 34. 
The Demonstrative Pronoun. 


Sing. masc. t this, that.* 
fem. D8 (it, 51) this, that. 
Plur. comm. “28 (rarely >) these, those. 
11 (mostly the relative which, and only in poe- 
try), these, those. 


The fem. form mXt comes from MNys, (i. e. 8} = Ht, and the fem. ending 
m,§79); and it, M1, are merely forms abridged by dropping the n, [and 
adopting final Quiescents more appropriate to the Hholem than &]. 

dx, bx form not a grammatical plural, but a plural of usage. They are 
related to the Arabic article 5X, (§ 35, note 1). "The form >x occurs only 
in the Pentateuch, and 1 Chron. 20: 8, and always takes the article; e. g. 
xT, (note 1 below). The H— in MP8 is a demonstrative appendage — 
n-— as it appears in mah, (§ 32, note 7). 

4+, mostly a fem. relative in poetry, and like "Wx, of all genders and num- 
bers. [As a demonstrative it is equivalent to both mt and mxt. See Ps. 
12: 8. Hab. 1: 11.] 

Nore 1. The demonstratives take the article, in accordance with the 
laws of adjectives (§ 109, 2); e. g. In, maRn, DNA. With these forms are 
employed others having an epenthetic 5; e. g. m}D0, Gen. 24: 65. 37: 19. 








* In most languages, Demonstratives begin with d; which is thence called Deute- 
laut (demonstrative sound). But this is sometimes exchanged for a Sibilant, or an 
Aspirate. Hence, in Aramaean, 81, 47, 973 Arab. dhu, dhi, dha; Sanscrit, sa, sd, tat ; 
Gothic, sa, 36, thata ; German, der, die, das; Eng. this ( = dhis), that, those. 


§ 35. THE ARTICLE. 81 


stbt fem. Ezek. 36: 36. Abbreviated is 12m, usually masc., as in Judg. 6: 
20, 1 Sam. 14: 1. 17: 26; fem. 2 K. 4: 25, In Arabic alladhi corresponds, 
as a relative pronoun. 


Nore 2. Some other pronominal stems occur among the particles; see 
§ 97 seq. 


§ 35. 
The Article. 

Originally the article was a demonstrative pronoun, (as in 
Greek), which was related to the pronoun of the third person, 
but of so feeble a meaning that it is rarely employed except in 
connection with a noun, [or its conjunct adjective, or a partici- 
pial word]. It is written with -4, i.e. followed by a Daghesh 
forte, has a short a, and naturally doubles the consonant which 
follows it, except in cases to be noted. 

E. g. au hash-she-mésh, “87H (see § 20, 3, 5), for "854. 

Gutturals cannot be doubled (§ 22,1), and therefore cannot 
take the Daghesh forte which follows the article. As a com- 
pensation, the short vowel of the article becomes long, (either 
—or-). Particulars follow: 

(1) Before the weak Guttural x, and also before \ (§ 22, 5), 
the vowel of the article is always prolonged. 

E. g. 285, “ST, BST, aN; sobann, wan, susan. 

(2) Before other Gutturals the general principle is, that the 

stronger the Guttural, the more the Pattah of the article is wont 


to remain unchanged. ‘Two cases may be distinguished as 
follows: 


(A) When the Guttural has any other vowel than (=) or 
(=), then, 

(a) The article-vowel remains before the stronger " and 5. 

E. g. 8:03, ohn, denn. Rarely as "1 Gen. 6: 19; but always Onn. 

(b) Before », the article-vowel is more usually prolonged. 

E. g. F135, 33, 3335, O22. On the other hand, Jer. 12: 9, o137. 

(B) When the Guttural takes (=), then the article is pro- 
longed 

(a) Before 4 and > if they are in the tone-syllable, it is always 
; when not in the tone, it is 7. 

E. g. 095, 4, }13; on the other hand, ps5nn, jizn, (art. 9). 

11 


82 § 36. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 


(b) Before 4, and also before 5, the article-vowel is always 
3, without reference to the tone. 

EF. g. Donn, smn; so "nn, won. But before ( — )i. e. @amets Hha- 
tuph or short 6, the & remains; as 72357 ha-hhokh- -ma. 

N. B. Gender and number have no influence on the form of the article. 

Nore 1, It is usually assumed, that the original form of the article was 
bm, and that the 5 of this word always assimilates with the following letter. 

But (1) 4, -7, has in itself a demonstrative power; comp. Arabic and 
Aramaean 85 ecce. (2) The form > no where developes itself, not even in 
mips (§ 84, Note 1), in which both the article “4 and the demonstrative > 
are comprised. (3) 'The Arabic article x, to which appeal is made, be- 
longs to another class of Pronoun-stems, kindred with M>x. And although 
bx occurs in the O. Test., yet it is only in Arabic names; e. g. Ti0>N 
Gen. 10: 26. Some find it in BIp>X, Prov. 30: 31, and also in wsasby 
Ezek. 13: 11, 13. 38: 22. 

Nore 2. When the prepositions 3, ae and the comparative particle 5 
(§ 100), come before the article, the latter ‘ually falls away, and the vowel 
of the article passes to the prefix particle (§ 23, 5). 

E, g. bvawa for nyawina, oY? for oym>, pina for ona. But after > 
the ‘5 is more frequently retained, as the connection is not so close; e. g. 
nit Gen. 39: 11, but also Di°> Gen. 25: 31, 33. Elsewhere it is retained 
only in the later books; e. g. D> 2 Chron. 10:7. (See however 1 Sam. 
13: 31). The 4 prefixed does not combine with the article; as B31. 


§ 36. 
The Relative Pronoun. 


This is the same for both genders and numbers, viz. “8x, 
who, which (sing. and plur.). In the later books, also through- 
out the Canticles and several times in the book of Judges, .¥ is 
used for it; which drops the 8 of the ground-form, and assimi- 
lates the - by a Daghesh forte. 

Sometimes this is pointed -, Judg. 5: 7. Cant. 1:7. Once before & 
(Judg. 6: 7) it is pointed 8; elsewhere, before Gutturals, 8. In two cases 
even © is employed, Ecce. 2: 22. 3: 18.* On the notation of cases, see 
§ 121, 1. 

“wx is also used as a conjunction, like quod, ot, dass, that. The same 
meaning attaches to "2, which originates in one of the pronoun-stems, 
§ 102. 4 





* In Phenician, it is always written ¥, and spoken as sa, se, si; Monum. Phenic. 
p- 438. Comp. § 2,5 above. In the recent Hebrew, also, ‘o is the reigning method 
of writing the word. 


§ 37. PRONOUN INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE. 83 


§ 37. 
The Pronoun Interrogative and Indefinite. 


J. The interrogative for persons is %2, who? For things it 
is ™2, what? 

The punctation of 2 with Qamets, is confined to pause, and 
to cases when it precedes an 8 or a; e. g. BRN 72, BON T2. 
Rarely does this take place before 4; as in Josh. 4: 6,21. On 
the other hand; when words are closely connected, (a) ‘The 
is written “12, i. e. with Maqqeph and Daghesh forte conjunc- 
tive (§ 20, 2), e. g. 42°72 mal-lakh, (what is it to thee?) and 
thus it constitute$ one word, as in 5252 Is. 3:15; nv, what is 
that? Ex. 4:2. (b) Before the harder Gutturals, 5,5, >, the 
word retains the Pattah, with a Daghesh implied (but not writ- 
ten) after it, § 22,1; as xin-ma, Num. 13:18. (c) When the 
Guttural has Qamets, it takes Seghol (§ 27, note 2), as mvs m2, 
Seldom is Seghol employed before words which begin with 
letters not Guttural; as >ip 72, 1 Sam. 4:6. 1 Kings 1:7; never 
except when the tone of the sentence is far removed from the 
word. Besides these different ways of pointing, such cases oc- 
cur as 22, 722; see Lex. on 72. 

2. Both % and 72 are employed as indefinite pronouns, viz. 
as meaning whoever, whatever. 


CHAPTER IL. 
OF THE VERB. 


§ 38. 
General View. 


1. The verb, in Hebrew, is by far the most completely form- 
ed; and in many respects, it is the most important part of 
speech, inasmuch as it contains the word-stem (§ 30), and its va- 
rious forms afford in a good measure a rule for the formation of 
the other parts of speech. 

2. In the meantime all verbs are not stem-words. They 
may be distinguished into three classes, in reference to their 
origin. 


84 § 39. CHANGES OF THE GROUND-FORM. 


(a) Primitive verbs; as 322 to reign, 22 to sit. 

(b) Verbal derivatives, which come from other verbs; as P2% 
to justify, Pans to justify one’s self, both from prs to be just. 
These are usually denominated Conjugations (§ 39). 

(c) Denominative verbs, which come from nouns (de nomine). 

E. g. D5 and dmx, to set up a tent, from S48 a tent ; W78 to root up, and 
wWenwn to take root, from 7 a root, This third class are formed after the 
model of the two foregoing ones, and appear to be of somewhat later for- 
mation in imitation of the others. 

In most cases, the noun from which the denominative verb is derived, is 
itself a derivate; e. g. M22 brick, (from 42> to be white), and thence 43> to 
make brick ; 247 fish, (from 735 to increase), and thence 37 to fish. 

A peculiar kind of secondary verbs, and at all events a later formation of 
the language, (thence more frequent in the later dialects), are those de- 
nominatives, in which a consonant, that was originally servile, has now be- 
come a radical. E. g. m1 to rest, to settle down, thence mn settling down, 
and then, from this latter, mm to descend. In the same way, we have my 
pu, destruction, (from 1B), and then mms to destroy. 


§ 39.. 
Changes of the ground-form, or Conjugations. 

1. The third person of the Perfect is usually regarded as the 
stem-form; e. g. 28p he has killed, 72> he is heavy.* From this 
the other persons of the Perfect and the participle are derived. 
A second form however, more simple in its structure, stands by 
the side of the Perfect, i. e. the Infinitive, (>»P, >ep); from which, 
for the most part, the Imperative and Imperfect are derived. 

2, From the ground-form, by an all-pervading analogy, are 
formed the derivate verbs. "The forms of these, changed by defi- 
nite rules, indicate of course a variation in the meaning; (which 
may be intensive, frequentative, causative, passive, reflexive, 
and reciprocal). 

E. g. 9725 to learn, 725 to teach ; 328 to lie down, 2°28 to lay down ; Dbw 
to judge, ~»v2 to contend before a tribunal. In other languages such words 
are regarded as newly derived verbs; e. g. Germ. fallen to fall, fillen to fell; 
Lat. jacére to cast, jacére to lie down; yivowat to be, yervew to beget. In 
Hebrew, however, since Reuchlin’s time, such formations haye been called 
Conjugations ; and then the regularity of formation far exceeds that in other 





* For brevity’s sake, it is common, in lexicons and elsewhere, to translate the Perf. 
by the Inf; e. g. 1725 to learn, literally, he has learned. 


§ 39. CHANGES OF THE GROUND-FORM. 85 


languages. In grammar and lexicography they are treated of merely as 
modifications of the same stem-form. With more strict propriety they might 
be named species or modifications, (The Hebrew grammarians call them 
D353, i. e. structures). 

3. The. changes of the ground-form rest partly on their in- 
ternal development, and the strengthening of the same by a 
change of vowels, or a reduplication of one or more consonants ; 
partly in the prefixing of certain formative letters or syllables. 

Examples of the first: >up, wp, Seip, SBiP, >2up, >u>dwp; of the 
second: >up2, 2pm. (Comp. $31, 2), 

In Aramaean less is effected by vowel-changes, than by formative sylla- 
bles. The differences made by vocalization are, in a large measure, out of 
use, so that, for example, all Passives are constituted by the reflexive forms 
with the prefix syllable MX or MX. The Arabic, on the other hand, exhi- 
bits great riches in both respects; while the Hebrew holds the middle path 
between the two, (§ 1, 6). 

4, The number and order of these conjugations are given 
differently by grammarians. In the meantime all occasion for 
error is removed, in case that they are habitually called by their 
old grammatical names. The ground-form is named Kal, (i.e. 
>p light, because it is augmented by no formative affixes); the 
others have their name from the model-verb >28, used for a Par- 
adigm by the oldest Jewish grammarians.* Several of them 
have passive forms, which are separated from the active ones 
by vowels which are more obscure. ‘T'he most common (includ- 
ing Kal) are the following five conjugations; which, however, 
rarely all actually occur in any one verb: 


Active. Passive. 
1. Kal. >up to kill. (wanting.) 
2. Niphal.  >up? to kill one’s self. (rare.) 
3. Piel. >up to kill much, to murder. Pual >up. 
4. Hiphil. >~pn to cause to kill. Hophal. >zpn. 
5. Hithpael, bupnn to kill one’s self. Hothpaal. >epnn. 





* This Paradigm was inappropriate, because of the Gutturals. It was therefore 
exchanged, afterwards, for 772; which had this advantage, viz., that all the conjuga- 
tions actually occur. as there was still one disadvantage here, viz., that in such 
forms as M7pS, 2778, a distinctness of enunciation is wanting. Since Danz, 
the common Poradiece his been Sup, which avoids this defect, and is well fitted for 
the harmonic treatment of the Semitic languages, since, with little change (Arab. and 
Ethiop. $np), this verb is found in all these dialects. In Hebrew, indeed, it is rare, 
and occurs dy in Kal, and moreover only in poetry; but still, as a model which has 
come down to us, it may well be retained. 


86 §40. cHANGES OF THE GROUND-FORM. 


Besides these are found several unusual conjugations ; which, 
however, are more common in the kindred languages, and also, 
in some of the irregular verbs, they are substituted for usual 
normal conjugations, (} 54). 

In Arabic the variety is stiJ] greater, and the consecution of each, as to 
its origin and its mutual relation, is more congruous, although still imper- 
fect. The Hebrew conjugations, arranged in the Arabic fashion, would 
follow thus: 1. Kal. 2. Pieland Pual. 3. Poel and Poal, (§ 54, 1). 4. Hiphil 
and Hophal. 5. Hithpael and Hothpaal. 6. Hithpoel, (§54). 7. Niphal. 8. 
(is wanting in Hebrew). 9. Pilel. Most appropriately we may make three 
classes. (1) The intensitive Piel with its derivatives and analogous forms. 
(2) The causative Hiphil and analogous forms Shaphel, Tiphel. (3) The 
reflexive and passive Niphal. 


4. The Hebrew, by virtue of the derivate verbs, i. e. conju- 
gations, possesses a kind of richness and amplitude of expres- 
sion. Yet in the formation of tenses and modes, it exhibits pov- 
erty. Every verb has only rwo tenses, (Perfect and Imperfect, 
§ 47, foot-note) ; and as to modes, it has an Imperative, an Infin- 
itive (with two forms), and a Participle. All other absolute 
and relative designations of time must be expressed, partly by the 
aid of these, (and hence their manifold meaning, § 123 seq.), and 
partly by syntactical arrangement. Only the relations of the Jus- 
sive and of the Optative are in part expressed by means of sig- 
nificant modifications of the form of the Imperfect, (§ 48). 


In German, Saxon, English, etc., the tenses are only fwo, in like way, made 
by change in the verb itself. The other tenses needed are made by the 
aid of helping verbs. 

2. In regard to their relation to each other, the forms of each 
conjugation are divided into two groups, (§39,1). The one 
attaches itself to the third pers. of the Perfect; but this consists 
of only the participle, (and not always even this). The other 
attaches itself to the Infinitive, and consists of the Imperfect, the 
Imperative, and (in part) the Participle. 


Bol Kal. Perfect ba Part. nv 
nsaliabiest a's <1 rlnaniaa bup: Part. >up2 
I Inf. and Imper. >»p Imperf. >2p* 

"( Piel. Inf. Imp. >wp Imperf. >vp: Part >up. 


3, The flection of the two tenses exhibits something diffe- 


§41. roRMATION OF VERBS. 87 


rent from the dialects of the West, in that, for the most part, a 
distinction of the two genders is marked by difference in the 
forms of the verb; in like manner as the personal pronouns are 
distinguished, which stand connected with these. 


§ 41. 
General analogy in the formation of Verbs. 


This analogy, taken in an extended sense, applies to all He- 
brew verbs; so that, properly speaking, there are no anomalous 
verbs in this language, like the Greek verbs, for example, in -ju. 
The actual departures from the general and normal formations 
arise in several ways: viz. 

(a) When one of the stem-letters is a Guttural; in which 
case several vowel-changes are demanded, in accordance with 
the principles exhibited in §22. (See Guttural Verbs, §61— 
64). 

(b) When a strong stem-consonant, by assimilation or con- 
traction of two letters, falls away, (contracted* verb) ; as in waz, 
230, §65. § 66. 

(c) When one of the stem-letters is a feeble letter, (i. e. one 
of the debiles, § 23, § 24) ; in which case, by exchange, by falling 
away, or by aremission of the consonant-power, several changes 
are brought about; (verb quiescent, feeble verb, are some of the 
older appellations). EE. g. in 38, 55. 

Here also, it is customary, by a reference to the old paradigmal stem, >25, 
to call the first radical of the verb Pe, the second yin, and the third Lamedh, 
Hence we say: a verb Pe Aleph (x5) is one whose first radical is 8; a 
verb Lamedh He (75>) is one whose third radical is 7; a verb Ayin Doubled 
(23) is one whose second and third radical is the same. 


I. Of the regular Verb. 
§ 42. 
Preparatory Remarks. 


Inasmuch as the formation of the regular verb lies at the basis of the ir- 
regular one, so it will be most fitting for beginners, and at the same time 





* The name defective, which others often employ to designate these verbs, is inap- 
plicable, because we can properly name in this way only those verbs, of which but a 
few, or at least not all, of the forms occur, (§ 77). 


88 § 42. OF THE GROUND-FORM OR KAL. 


most perspicuous, if we treat of everything which belongs to the general 
analogy of verbs, under the category of the regular verb. 

A complete view of the most usual and normal forms the reader may find 
at the close of this yolume, in Parad. B. A copious explanation follows 
here, in § 43—54. In these, everything is explained in the order in which 
it first occurs; of course, the flexion of the Perfect, of the Imperfect, and of 
the modifications of the latter in Kal, together with the forms and meaning 
of the Conjngations in a regular verb, ‘To this model all other verbs are 
substantially conformed, although they may pass for wregular verbs. 


[A] Of the Ground-form or Kal. 


§ 43. 
Form and Meaning of Kal. 


The common form of the third pers. Perfect, is the ground- 
form of Kal, e.g. 2p, specially in verbs transitive. Besides this 
there are two other ground-forms, one with Teri (=) and the 
other with Hholem (-) in the second syllable. The last two 
belong predominantly to verbs intransitive, and those which 
designate condition and attributes; e. g.722 to be heavy, j*P to 
be small. Sometimes the ground-form belongs to both classes ; 
e. g. 82 and N22, the first to fill, the second to be full, (comp. 
§ 47, note 2); but sometimes it has both forms with the same 
meaning, e. g. 232 and 297, both to draw near. 

{The first class is named verbs middle A, the second verbs middle E or O, 
i.e. verbs whose middle letter is followed by A, etc.] Verbs middle A and 
E are designedly arranged together in Parad. B; but the latter verb is se- 
lected in such a way, as to make the principle of inserting or omitting Da- 
ghesh lene conspicuous. 

Norte 1. The vowel of the second syllable is the principal one; and on 
this the appropriate forms of the transitive and intransitive meaning are sus- 
pended. The /fore-tone Qamets, in the first syllable, has but little stability, 
and by a removal of the tone-syllable it becomes a Sheva; e. g.DRbUP. In 
Aramaean the principal forms are as bup, dup. ae 

Nore 2. Denominative verbs in Kal are like to the following: viz. "72" to 
bepitch, from “v2ry pitch ; M22 to salt (quasi besalt), from ™2") salt. 


§ 44. 
Perfect of Kal and its flexion. 


1, The variations to express person, gender, and number 
here, are made by attaching fragments of pronouns to the end 


§44. PERFECT KAL. 89 


of the ground-form, (hence called Afformatives) ; which ground- 
form, moreover, sometimes constitutes a participle or verbal ad- 
jective,* as 822 to be full, and also, full; j2p to be small, and also, 
small. 

E. g. 9732p thoukillest, or a killer [art] thou, instead of MMR Sup; SO-NT ye 
are afraid, or feaful [are] ye, instead of BAX NT. Thisis quite plain, then, 
in regard to the second person. In the first person, it isalmost equally so; 
e. g. plur. 12bUp for "28 >UR; sing. “mDUp, where the *— is the substance 
or simple germ of the first person, and to this is added the demonstrative 
mM, to give the Yodh a more stable character and make it more conspic- 
uous ; while, at the same time, this device distinguishes the verbal forma- 
tive suffix "Mm from other suffix forms of the same stem-pronoun, viz. "2- 
and "—. (Besides, after the analogy of MX, OMS thou, there may have been 
an old "h28== "HN, in which case, the source of the "- is very plain). 
In the third person sing. ferm., the 5—, (which originally was n—, see note 
4 below), designates the feminine form, (as in Nouns, §79, 2). In the third 
pers. plur., the \— ending is merely the old pronoun j:—; [which, moreover, 
not unfrequently makes its appearance]. 

In the Indo-Germanic, the flexion as to persons isin the like way, viz. by 
appending personal pronouns ; as, for example, in Greek, the Doric ending 
-ues (from Guuss we), and the corresponding Latin one -mus, shows. (See 
Bopp, Vergleich. Gramm. § 439 ff). But the etymology in those languages 
is very much effaced. The like we meet with in some of the Semitic lan- 
guages ; e. g. first pers. sing. in Arab. qa-tal-tu, Syr. qet-let, where the cha- 
racteristic (7) has entirely vanished. 

2. In regard to the shortening of vowels, this takes place 
after the analogy of the third fem. sing. 52¥p; so the third pers. 
plur. op. After the analogy of the second mase. sing. 9>%P, 
are all the other forms of the first and second person. 

Bat as to the fone, bm>ep, jn2up, have it on the ultimate, i. e. 
on the formative suffix. Hence a Sheva under the first stem- 
letter, (} 27, 3). 








* In regard to the close connection between the third pers. Perfect and participial 
or verbal adjectives, see § 39,1. In zntransitive verbs, the two forms are identical ; as 
in the text above, s$:2 is both verb and participial adjective. 

+ |Roediger has distinguished, in his Paradigms of the verbs, those forms which he 
here designates as normal forms or model-forms, by an asterisk. I know of no yalua- 
ble purpose to be answered by this, as to committing the verbs to memory; for as to 
any other use than this, it would be difficult to name it. I omit therefore this artifi- 
cial distinction, because it multiplies, rather then removes, the difficulties that lie in 
the student’s way. He will remember the original forms themselves more easily 
than such distinctions.—§.] 

12 


90 §44. PERFECT KAL. 


Note 1. The verbs middle (—), in their flexion, drop the (—), and cen- 
form to the usual inflection of verbs middle (—); see Par. B. under 72>. 
But verbs 85, with such a feeble stem-letter, retain the long vowel (middle —) 
throughout; e. g. 8", first pers. snxba, (§73, note 1). In stems whose 
letters are all strong ones, the (—) appears out of the third pers. sing. only 
in case of pause, and consequently only when some emphasis lies upon it; 
as Mpaz, Job 29: 10. Comp. 2 Sam. 1: 23. Job 41: 15. 

Nore 2. In some stems with middle Pattah normally in the derivate 
forms, and whose second letter is one of the debiles, when the second sylla- 
ble loses the tone and is a closed one, while the first stem-letter has a She- 
va, the medial normal Pattah goes over: into (—) or (—) short; e. g. BmeNw, 
1 Sam. 12: 13; and so pws (from wa), Deut. 4: 1, 22; and so before suf- 
fixes, "M283, 1 Sam. 1: 20; Spent, Ps. 2: 7. (See §27,n. 2.3). One must 
guard against supposing these verbs in their ground-form to be middle (—), 
[as Ges, in Lex. has done]; for the short vowels in question come only in 
consequence of weakening the sound of the middle syllable, and the third 
pers. Perfect is SU, Woo, q25, and not middle (—). See § 68, note 1. §72 
note 4. 

Nore 3, In verbs with middle O(Hholem), the O remains in all syllables 
that have the tone, and becomes short 6 in all that have it not; e. g. m&a5, 
but with tone removed as *f223, and so 432.4, Ex. 18: 23, where the 4 
prefix throws forward the tone, (§ 48 b, 3). 

Nore 4. Unusual forms, (common ones for the most part in the kindred 
languages), are the following: (a) Third sing. fem. in (m—) (as in Arab. 
Aeth. Chald. Syr.); e. g. Pot, Deut. 32: 36. Before a suffix to the third 
fem. this form is the usual one, (§58,2, note 3). In verbs Xb and >, the 
fem. is not unfrequently made by n—, (see § 73,n. 1. § 74, n. 1). (b) The 
second pers. sing. masc, sometimes puts Mm— for H-, (which is only an ortho- 
graphical variation), as mm732, Mal. 2: 14, comp. Gen. 3: 12; and so often- 
times. (c) The second. fom. has sometimes a*— at the end ; as sash, Jer. 31: 
21. Specially may this be found in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. This form is 
properly to be read as "M225; for the vowel-signs which stand in the text, 
belong to the marginal Qeri m=5m (without +). Comp. the pronoun "Ax, 
(§ 32, n.4). Hence the form of second fem. before suffixes, viz. smbup, 
(§ 58, 2). (d) The first pers. sing. is sometimes without its final —; as mbup ; 
Ps. 140: 13. Job 42: 2. 1 Kings 8: 48; but only in the Kethibh. The Qeri 
designates the full form. (e) The second plur. fem. for jR- sometimes takes 
mh, or min, Amos 4:3. (/) The third plur. sometimes (although seldom) 
has ji— for 1— in the Perfect, like Chald. and Syr., e. g. ji", Deut. 8: 3, 
16; sometimes a paragogic &, as sisbh, Jos. 10: 14. In the. Tanai the 
ending 4; is more frequent, (§ 47, n. 4). 

Nore 5. When the formatives m, "mM, 52, are employed, the tone remains 
upon the second syllable of the verb; but the other endings draw it down 


§45. INFINITIVE. 91 


upon themselves. Yet the place of the tone may be changed by a pause- 
accent, § 29, 4; and, (1) Where in ordinary declension a vowel has fullen 
away, and a Sheva come in its place, there the pause-accent brings back 
the original vowel, and if it be short, prolongs it; e. g. n2wp, mdr » (2) 
A Vav consecutive prefixed to the Perfect, throws the accent forward ; (see 
§ 48 b, 3). 
§ 45. 
Infinitive. 

I, The second ground-form of every conjugation is the Jn- 
finitive ; and of this the shortest form, (Inf. construct), as in Kal 
>=p. This is the predominant form, not merely when a Geni- 
tive case follows, but also necessary when a preposition is pre- 
fixed, (e.g, 5¥P>, >&pa). ‘The longer form (Inf. absolute), in Kal 
>i2p, is employed when action is designated by itself without 
immediate connection; but most frequently when the Inf. is 
added to a finite verb, in order io make an energetic expres- 
sion; (see $128). ‘The first form is the original one, and the 
last appears to be of later origin, and to be formed from it. The 
first has more the character of a verbal noun; the second ex- 
presses the verbal idea in the abstract. 

E. g. "p32 350, Is. 22: 13, there is an ox-killing ; while, on the other hand, 
“pat 3450 means the killing of the oxen. 

2, In Kal, >'%p and >»p stand in similar, although not alto- 
gether the same relation,* as nouns of such a form in the abso- 
lute and construct state, (§ 90, Parad. 111.) ; but at the same time 
they differ in this respect, viz. that the first has a fixed and im- 
mutable Hholem, while the last has a pure and mutable one. 

Hence, when a suffix is appended to the Inf, const., it throws back and 
shortens its vowel; e. g. >2P, but with suffix, "2p qét-li, my killing. But 
besides this usual Hholem in the second syllable, other vowels are some- 
times employed; e. g. 

(a) Like >=p (final Pattah); as in 32%, Gen. 34: 7. 

(b) Feminine forms, like M>up, M>up, meeP, (from >up, >bP); e. g. 





* The relation of these two forms is indeed like to that of the absolute and construct 
state of nouns (§ 87); but it differs from them in point of meaning. The form of the 
Inf. abs. is mostly a longer one; but oftentimes it takes other vowels than the Inf. 
construct; e. g. Piel, up, abs. biup, and thus it is extended out of that, but that is 
not shortened out of this. The use of the Inf. const., moreover, is not limited merely 
to the cases when the Gen. follows. In the Paradigm, therefore, the Inf. construct is 
put down as the predominant form, and represented as the Inf. xar’ éox7v. 


92 § 46. THE IMPERATIVE. 


MN to hate; Map to approach, Ex. 36: 2; nban to spare, Ezek. 16: 5. 
The Inf. may also have a fem. ending as a nomen verbale. 

(c) Sometimes as dL, (like the Chaldee Inf); e. g. 87> to call, Num. 
10: 2. 

These unusual forms are also employed as verbal nouns; § 83, 10. 11. 14. 

2, The Hebrew forms a kind of Gerund by using the Inf. 
const. with the preposition > before it. 

E. g. >» p>, by slaying, for slaying ; >52> to the falling. The > in such 
cases is treated as being incorporated with the verb; as the division of syl- 
Jables and the Daghesh lene shows, e. g. in PB»? lin-pol (§ 28, 1), just as in 
the Imperf. we have 323°, pup. On the other hand, other prefixes which 
are more loosely attached, do not bring about such a division of syllables, 
or admit the Daghesh lene in such cases; e. g. PBI bi-n°phol, Job 4: 13; 
>E2> ki-n’phol, ete. 


§ 46. 
The Imperative. 

J. The leading form of the Imperative, >»P (>uP) is the same 
which lies at the basis of the form of the Imperfect (§ 47), and 
in a different way from the Infinitive (§ 45) attaches itself to the 
noun.” It represents the secovd person, and forms a feminine 
and a plural. For the third person it has no special form (§ 127, 
note 2); and even the second person must be expressed by the 
jussive form, when a negative is added; e. g. >&pn dx, thou shalt 
not kill, (not >»p >). The proper Passives have no Imper.; 
but the Reflexives admit one, such as Niphal and Hithpael.f 

2. The inflection is altogether like to that of the Imperfect, 
and may be understood by the explanations in § 47,2. Like 
that tense, the Imper. also has a prolonged and a shortened 
form; the first after the manner of the hortatory, the second af- 
ter that of the jussive, (§ 48, 5). 





* The Inf. abs., moreover, like the Greek Inf., is sometimes used for the Imper., 
(§ 128, 4.5). This, however, is no reason for regarding the Imper. as an Infinifive ; 
for the Inf. abs. stands also for the Present, Perfect, and Future. More admissible is 
it, to consider the Imper. as an abridgment of the second pers. of the Imperf., (Sup 
out of Sopm). Better than all is it, to regard each of these three forms as an inde- 
pendent grammatical formation; and they are not out of one another, but all three 
together have arisen out of the basis of the abstract verbal form, (§ 39,1). The flexion 
of the Imper. may perhaps have sprung from that of the Imperfect. 

t Twice (Ezek. 32:19. Jer. 49: 8) an Imper. form is found in Hophal; but with a 
reflexive meaning. 


§47. THE IMPERFECT. 93 


Nore 1. Besides the form bop, we have also forms like 328, (as in the 
Inf. and Imperf.), 2 Sam. 13: 5. Normal is 433 from 733; see Par. B. 

Nore 2, Sometimes in the fem. form and in the plural, a short 6 (Qa- 
mets Hhatuph) takes the place of 7; e. g. 1302, Ezek. 32: 30; "2>72, Judg. 
9: 10. 

Nore 3. In the form m2>>p, the N= sometimes falls away, and then a 
helping-vowel comes in; e. g. j22u for M2324, Gen. 4: 23. Comp. jXIP 
for MINIP, Ex, 2: 20. The shortening appears to be occasioned by the 
Guttural. 


§ 47. 
The Imperfect and its inflection.* 


1. The persons of the Imperfect are formed in a way oppo- 
site to those of the Perfect; inasmuch as abridged forms of the 
personal pronouns (Praeformatives) are put before the stem, i. e. 
before its abstract form >2P. 

But since the tone is usually on the last syllable, the Prae- 
formatives are more abridged than the Afformatives or suffixes of 
the Perfect, in order that the voice may not be delayed in has- 
tening to the tone. The Praeformatives, therefore, retain only 
one letter of the pronouns, (*, 4,8, 2), and normally have a very 
short vowel. But since the stem-form becomes manifold by 
inflection, and the abridged prefix-pronouns are not sufficient in 
number and kinds always to distinguish the gender and num- 
ber of the verb, the needed distinction is made by suffixes in ad- 
dition to the prefixes. 

2, The meaning and derivation of the Praeformatives, and 
also of the Suffixes, is for the most part quite plain. E. g. 





* The name Imperrect is here directly the opposite of Perfect ; and this name, as 
employed in Heb. Grammar, is to be taken in a much wider sense than in Greek or 
Latin. Tue Hes. Perrecr designates in general that which is COMPLETED and PAST; 
at the same time, however, it designates also what is considered or supposed to be com- 
pleted, and therefore it must extend to the present, and even to what is future as to ac- 
tuality. The Imprrrect, on the contrary, designates that which is incomplete and in 
a state of continuance, that which is becoming so or so, and of course also that which is fu- 
ture. Hence it has usually been called the Future. But besides this, the Jmperfect 
designates that which was in a progressive state and a connected sequency, (like the Latin 
Imperf.). In the formation of the two tenses, the difference is specially marked by 
the fact, that the Perfect, which is more of an objective nature, is formed by placing 
the verb before personal suffixes, which are thus presented as something subordinate ; 
while on the contrary, in the /mperfect, the subject or agent from whom the action 
proceeds, is designated by prefix-pronouns. (See further in Synt. § 123 seq.). 





94 § 47. THE IMPERFECT. 


(a) The first pers. sing. 5px, is marked by & a fragment of "2% I> the 
Jirst plural, 522, by the > of "28 we; and no suffix is here needed. 

(b) The second pers. sing. masc., >=pM, has m from Ams thou; the fem. 
form suffixes ", as “UPN , from "M8 thou fem. (§ 32, n.4).—The second pers. 
plur. masc., takes 4, ‘OPM, where the 5, (an abridgment of 71, the index of 
the plur., see note 4 below), shows the plural number of the person in ques- 
tion. (The same index pluralitatis is employed in the third pers. plur. here, 
and also in the Perfect, § 44, 1, and in the last as common gender, but in 
the case before us only as masculine*).—The second plur. fem., n72=ph 
suffixes m2—, perhaps from iq fem. a (Chald. j=), in order to distin- 
guish it. 

(c) The third pers. sing. and plur. masc. have * prefix formative, as >oPr ; 
"Up. ; and this Yodh is probable employed in the room of the weaker 
consonant ° (from 815 he), which last would sound >% 2P1 viq-tol.—In the fem. 
forms, 2pm sing. and m2>2Pn plur., the m is probably derived from the fem. 
ending M—. The second persons sing. and plur. exhibit the same forms in 
part as the dhird persous [and the context therefore must decide for the 
reader which is meant]. ‘The 3-, as before, is an index of the fem. plural. 


3, In respect to relaining the second vowel of the stem-form, 
or dropping it and putting a Sheva in its place, all the forms 
which have no suffixes, follow the model >2p1; those which have 
them, follow the model epn, (dropping the second vowel, and 
substituting the Sheva), and 4223pn 


[Much more simple and easily remembered is the rule, that those persons 
which receive a suffix, beginning with a vowEL, drop their second vowel and 
take a Sheva in its place; those whose suffixes begin with a consonant, retain 
the second vowel. E. g. *>2P4, nPLP Pm; but met 2PM, Imper. 4222p. Comp. 
§ 44, 2, foot note.—S. ]} 

Nore 1. The Hholem (6) in the last syllable is pure and mutable, (being 
a simple prolongation of the corresponding short vowel, § 9, No. 10, 3). 
Therefore, (a) Seldom is it written plené, like >ivpr. (b) Before Maqqeph 
it goes into Qamets Hhatuph (6); e. g. DY-amss (vay-yikh-tobh sham). (ce) 
It is dropped, when a suffix beginning with a vowel is attached. In a few 
cases, just before the tone, the Hholem shortens into 4 [instead of Sheva]; 
e. g. 1aApw3, Ex. 18: 26. Ruth 2: 8. comp. Prov. 14: 3. 

Norte 2. This Hholem, however, is rarely found except in verbs middle 
(-), like 5wp. The intransitives (middle E and O), usually take (—) in the 
Imperfect; e. g. >33, 5732; JSP, JEP2- Sometimes the two forms coevist ; 





* This is the appropriate gender of 4;—, 1-. In the Perfect, third plur., it stands, 
indeed, for both genders. But not so in the kindred languages; for the Syriac has 
mase. getaldn, fem. getalén; Arab. mase. getalu, fem. getalna. 


§47. THE IMPERFECT. 95 


and then those with O are transitive, and those with A are intransitive ; e. g. 
“SP? he will cut off, “EP he will be cut off, or it will be short. So 82m, Im- 
perf. with O, to conquer, with A, to be conquered, Ex. 17: 13. Job 14: 10. 
Seldom have both forms the same meaning, as 271 and Tw, he will bite. 
In some of the irregular verbs, the Imperf. sometimes takes (—), instead of 
O or A; e. g. jm" for jm27, he will give. We name these three forms of the 
Imperfect, for distinction’s sake, Imperf. A, Imperf. E, and Imperf. O; and 
these vowels we call character-vowels. 

Note 3. For the third pers. plur. fem., mbepm, the form mapbps some- 
times occurs, in order to distinguish the ‘chive plur. fem. from the second 
plur. fem.; and so it is in Chaldee and Arabic. E. g. fem. m27%3", Dan. 
8: 22, comp. Gen. 30: 38. 1 Sam. 6: 12. On the other hand, the plur. fem. 
mbbpn is in some cases employed for the third fem. sing.; as in Ex. 1: 
10. Judg. 5: 26; and (as some suppose) in Job 17: 16. Is. 28:3. (In vulgar 
Arabic, nekal, we eal is employed for the first pers. J eat; in the French Pa- 
tois, avons for Jai, I have. In the Pentateuch, for m2— frequently stands j 
(nd), especially after 1 consecutive, (§ 48, 6, 2), as also in Arabic. There is a 
form still more abridged in the Imper., (see § 46, n. 3). An anomaly with- 
out a parallel is 3°7235 in Ezek. 16: 50, after the analogy of verbs 25 and 

¥, (§ 66, 4. § 71, 5). 

Nore 4. The plur. forms which end in 4, not unfrequently appear with 
the full ending j:—; for the most part emphatic, and most frequently at the 
end of a sentence, in which case the vowel of the second syllable is mostly 
held fast by pause, as 951397, Ex. 15: 14, jaz"2um,, Deut. 1: 17. Sometimes the 
ji- is adopted tchnt Ais a condition; e. g. Ps. 11:2, pep j12977, comp. 
Ps, 4: 3. Gen. 18: 28—32. Is. 8: 12. 1 Sam. 9:13. The preference, however, 
for this prolonged form at the close of a sentence or separate clause, is 
shown plainly by Is. 26: 11, 18ia5 a3 jATIM ba.* In Aram. and Arab. 
the ji- is the usual ending; but in the vulgar Arabic it is shortened. An 

& after the plur. ending, is found only in Jer. 10: 5, N1e5. 

Nore 5. In like manner "22pm is sometimes prolonged, as p2opn, and 
so usually in Arab. and Aramaean. In this case the }>— is hardly to be re- 
garded as original, but only as an imitation of }5-. ead in 1 Sam. 1: 
14, Ruth 2: 8, 21. 3: 4, 18. 

Nore 6. In pause, the original vowel of the second syllable is restored, 
and prolonged if it be short; as *>2PA, in pause nopm. Comp. § 29, 4. 


§ 48. 
Jussive and hortative in the Imperfect and Imperative. 


1. Some small compensation for the want, which the He- 





~* The book of Chronicles often drops the Nun, where it remains in the book of 
Kings; see 1 K. 8: 38, 43, comp. 2 Chron. 6: 29, 85—1 K. 12: 24. 2 K. 11: 5, comp. 
2 Chron. 11: 4, 23: 1. 


96 § 48, sussIVE AND HORTATIVE FORMS. 


brew and its kindred dialects exhibit, of definite forms for the 
relative tenses and modes of the verb, is made by the changes 
which the Imperf. undergoes; for to these a peculiar meaning 
belongs, which is either exclusive or at least predominant. 

2, The common form of the Imperfect is separated from the 
prolonged (hortative) form, and also from an abbreviated (jus- 
sive) one; the first of which developes itself (with very few ex- 
ceptions) only in the first person, the second in the second and 
third persons. ‘The shorter form, i. e. the jussive, is not always 
distinguished orthographically, but oftentimes it coincides with 
the common normal form. 

In Arabic, the difference is always plain; and besides the common Indic. 
form, yaq-tu-lu, there is, (a) A Subj., yag-tu-la. (b) A Jussive, yaq-tul. (c) A 
so-called Fut. energic, yaq-tu-lan, which last comes near to the Hebrew hor- 
tative. 

«3. The characteristic of the Hortative is long A (5-), ap- 
pended to the first persons, sing. and plur.; e. g. H2¥PX, N2BPR2. 
It occurs in all the conjugations, and in all classes of the regu- 
lar and irregular verbs, excepting the Passives. ‘This hortative 
ending, 4, has the tone in all cases where the formative suf- 
fixes "- and "= have it; and consequently it changes the prece- 
ding vowel into a Sheva, just as they do. 

E. g. ny7eN, Piel HpM2 Ps. 2:3; but in Hiphil MISIN, because the 
tone must rest on the penult. 

Rarely the more obscure ending H— stands instead of F—, (§ 27, n. 4); 
e. g. 1 Sam. 28: 15. Ps. 20: 4. Sometimes the third person takes the end- 
ing in question, [with an Optative sense], as Is, 5: 19. Ezek. 23: 20. Ps. 
20: 4. ‘The second person has it only in the Imperative; see No. 5 be- 
low. 

The ending "= appended to nouns as an Acc. ending, desig- 
nates the idea of direction toward a place (§ 93,1). Analogi- 
cally with this, the Hortative with this ending designates striv- 
ing afler a thing, directing the will towards any action. 'The 
form in question is used, therefore, to express excitement of one’s 
self, resolution, wish, etc., i. e. it is used in an Optative sense, 
(see § 126). 

4., The Jussive is employed only in the second and third 
persons, and its form is modified in various ways; as will be 
shown in appropriate places. In the regular verb, only Hiphil 


§4Sb. PERFECT AND IMPERF. WITH VAV. 97 


has a form appropriate toit.* Verbs 1} formit in Kal and Hiph- 
il;> and verbs > in all their conjugations.° 

(a) Jussive 52", usual form DUP’. (b) In Kal, nia", common form 
mas; Hiph. m2", common form m7. (c) ba*, common form 23%, Hiph. 
dan, common form MDa ; every where, here, does the Jussive throw away 
the usual and normal ending 5—, and therefore the jussive form is called 
apocopate, 

But let it be carefully noted here, that the plwral Jussive has 
no form different from the common one, excepting that it does 
not admit the ending js-. Moreover, the second pers. sing. fem. 
sounds as “>"2pn, [i. e. it has the normal form]. 

N. B. The meaning of this form of the second and third persons, is like 
to that of h— appended to the /irst persons. It is employed particularly in 
expressing command, wish, etc, (§ 126). 

. The Imperative, which in general is closely allied to the 
Imperfect, admits both the prolonged and abridged forms, as de- 
scribed above. The Arabians have an Imper. energic. In 
most of the conjugations, however, only one of these forms is 
admissible ; in others, both are used together. 

E. g. the prolonged Imper. is found in Kal of the regular verb; as “2¥, 
Mv; 120,22. The abridged Imper. is employed in verbs Hb; as D3 
for “5s. In Hiphil, however, both forms are employed; as Es) aia! and 
DpH. The meaning here is not so discernibly different, as it is in the 
Imperf.; but still, the longer form is often used with emphasis; as DP, 
mp, up! riseup! So jn, mn. : 


§ 48 b. 
Perfect and Imperfect with Vav consecutive. 


1. The meaning of the two tenses is, as the Syntax will show 
more fully (} 124. § 125, comp. note at the bottom of page 93 
above), by no means limited to the designation of the past and 
the future. To the most striking peculiarities of their use, and of 
the Hebrew language in general, belongs this peculiar usage, 
viz. that in continuous narrations of the past, only the first verb 
stands in the Perfect, and then the narration is continued by the 
Imperfect. Just the reverse of this takes place in continuous 
descriptions of the future, which begin with the Imperf., and are 
continued by the Perfect. 


E. g. Gen. 1: 1, In the beginning God created (Perf.) the heavens and the earth: 
13 


98 §48b. PERFECT AND IMPERF. WITH VAV. 


(3) And God said (Imperf.): Let there be light, and light was, (Imperf.). (4) 
And God saw (Imperf.) that, etc. On the contrary: Is. 7: 17, Jehovah will 
bring (Imperf.) upon thee and upon thy people, and upon thy father’s house, 
days such, etc. (18) And it shall be (Perf.), in that day .... (19) And they 
shall come (Perf.). This advance of time, this sequency of thought, is pre- 
dominantly marked by the Vav copulative ; which, however, partly in itself 
here receives a form different from the usual one, and partly has an influ- 
ence on the forms of the Perfect and Imperfect to which it is prefixed.* 


2, Vav consecutive of the Imperfect takes the first rank. 
This is uttered by a Pattah followed by a Daghesh forte, with 
such variations as the letter which follows may require. E. g. 

(a) Before the third pers., as ps; but before the first pers. (which pre- 
fixes 8), as DUPNI, (i. e. N excludes Daghesh, and so prolongs the vowel, 
§ 22,1). (bd) Whenever the Imperf. is susceptible of abridgment in its form 
(§ 48, 4), the Vav in question demands it; e. g. Hiphil DUP, (§ 52 n. 4). 
Oftentimes this Vav draws back the tone to the penult, (except the word is 
in pause), [and provided the penult is capable of sustaining it]; e. g. the 
usual form is M725, contracted nian, with Vav consec. 17254 vay-ya-moth, (§ 71, 
n. 4). It comes from this tendency to shorten, that the endings }i—, j"-, 
rarely occur after Vav consec.; as in 22°75 Judg. 8: 1. Ezek. 44: 8, But in 
the first person, specially the singular, the case is somewhat different, par- 
ticularly in the later books; for these frequently append H—, when the Vay 
is prefixed; e. g. HY V2N, Ezra 9: 3. (See more in 4 126, 3). 

N. B. In the earlier editions of this Grammar another view of the Vav in 
question is taken, according to which it is to be regarded as an abridgment 
of M55 (if was), which is prefixed to the Imperfect to cireumscribe the nar- 
rative tense. Thus Pops was considered as —= pepe 3, it happened [that] 
he killed. But it is evident that the Vav consec. comprises in it the force of 
a copula ; for, (1) The Imperf. with this Vav, standing before its noun, unites 
the clause or sentence to the preceding one; e. g. pi sans, Gen. 1: 3. 
And where the noun comes first, the Vav still retains a place even before 
that, although it influences the verb in the same manner as before described ; 
e.g. Is. 6: 4, 9 NDB MDM... 19955, and [the thresholds] trembled, .. . 
and the house was filled with smoke. Is. 3: 16. (2) This Vav is never used af- 
ter those relatives and conjunctions which exclude and, (e. g. "UN, VEX2, 
">). (3) In parallel passages, an ordinary 4 often stands in the place of it ; 
see Is, 59: 16, and comp. Is. 63: 3, 5,6. In the same connection simple Vav 
stands, in Is, 43: 28. (4) When whole books or paragraphs commence with 





* Because this Vav changes the meaning of the tenses to which it is prefixed, the 
Hebrew grammarians have named it Vav conversive, (i. e. conversive of the Fut. into 
the Praeter, and of the Praet. into the Future). More appropriate is the name Vav 
consecutive, since it essentially denotes seguency — progress. 


§4S8b. PERFECT AND IMPERF. WITH VAV. 99 


the Vav consec., (as is often the case), this is to be regarded as a sign, that 
they are connected, or were deemed to be connected, with the preceding 
book, paragraph, etc.; e. g. Ex.,andso Ezra; and in like manner, Ruth, Es- 
ther, etc. In the same manner, the 1 Kings begins with the simple 1. (5) 
The other opinion, that 4 stands for 755 [has no analogy in the Hebrew], 
and no probability in its favour. 

Vaw consecutive, then, should be regarded as a strengthened form of the 
Vav copulative, with the meaning: and then, and so. We may compare with 
this the particles 3, 3, 4, which, when strengthened, go into the like form ; 
e. g. in W722, rma, m3. Moreover, the retraction of the tone, occasioned 
by Vav consec. has a parallel i in like connections; e.g. 123. The shorten- 
ing of the verb after Vav consec. falls in with the jussive form only by acci- 
dent; and so it is with the prolonging of the form in the hortative ; for it 
corresponds with such a form united to the Vav, only accidentally and not 
essentially. 


3, The Vav consecutive in the Imperf. is the counterpart of 
Vav consecutive of the Perfect, which unites the Perfect to a 
future that precedes. This Vav of the Perfect, diflers not in 
form from the common Vav; e. g. 777) (after a Future) and it 
shall come to pass. But it affects that part of the forms of verbs, 
which have a penult tone, and throws the tone upon the ulti- 
mate.* 
E. g. "7255, but with Vav, »h2>h51 (preceded by the future), Judg. 1: 3; 
nbaaan, with. Vay, mn n3s735. For particulars, see § 124. But this throw- 
ing of the tone forward by Vav consec., is not carried uniformly through, 
and some particular cases of the contrary seem rather strange. E. g. (a) It 
does not affect the first pers. plural ; as 123), Gen. 34: 16. (b) It produces 
no effect on verbs Xd and 4. , 


§ 49. 
Of the Participle. 


1, Kal has a double Participle, viz. a participle active (na- 
med Poel} from the form of the old Paradigm here), and a parti- 
ciple passive, (called Pail). ‘This last should probably be re- 
garded as the remnant of an old and lost passive form of >up. 





* Whether the throwing of the tone forward has a reference in itself to the future; 
and on the contrary, whether throwing the tone back, (as in ©p51), gives a nearer 
connection with the past, may be a matter of doubt. 

+ The Jewish grammarians call the active participle 343" (i. e. middle word), not 
in conformity with the sense of the appellation active, but, inasmuch as this partici- 
ple often has the sense of the Present (§ 131, 2), and therefore holds a medium between 
the two tenses (the Perf. and the Fut.), they call it the intermediate. 


100 § 49, PARTICIPLE. 


In Aramaean, the passives of Piel and Hiphil, even to the participial form, 
have fallen away and are lost. 

2, Inits original form, the participle active resembled in par- 
ticular, the third pers. sing. of the Perfect, and is distinguished 
only by the longer vowel (- for—) peculiar to the nominal form." 
But as a present matter of fact, the most common participle of 
verbs midd. A has the form >¥p, this form being derived from 
>2p, the O sound arising by means of obscuring the A, (§ 9, 
10. 2). The form >2p now belongs only to verbal nouns, (§ 83, 
1). Different in manner is the participle in Piel, Hiphil, and 
Hithpael. 

(a) The original participial form seems to have been >¥p from 2p; 78" 
from jw (inidd. E); “42 from 75> (midd. O). All the participles, except 
those of verbs middle A, retain the form of the Perfect. 

<3. The formation of the feminine and of the plural follows 
in the track of nouns which have a similar form, (§ 90. § 91). 

Norte 1. Asa peculiar form we may regard 972M, Ps. 16: 5, (= sya"m 
from 372m); comp. 2720 2 K. 8: 21, and the proper name Saas 1 Chron. 
27:30. Many reckon here 01M, Is. 29: 14. 38:5; but this is rather third fem. 
sing. Imperf. Hiphil, from 0°. (Comp. a like construction in Is. 28: 16). 
The Hholem in 52> is immutable; although for the most part it is written 
defective. In Is. 41: 7, 21m stands for B>4n, as is plain from the principles 
of tone, § 29, 3, b.. 

Nore 2. The passive participle not unfrequently has an active meaning, 
especially when it occurs in verbs intransitive. Thus 1mN holding (not held), 
~ Cant. 3: 8; M1D2 trusting (not trusted), Ps. 112: 7. One may compare this 
with the Latin Deponent. 


[B] Derived Conjugations. 


§ 50. 
Niphail. 


UZ, A complete characteristic of this conjugation consists in 
the prefix-syllable »4, (corresponding to the seventh Conj. in 
Arab., which has 38). But this characteristic fully appears no- 
where except in the Inf. (const.) >»pn = >epn. This form is 
the model of the Imper. and of the Imperfect. The latter reads 
bup2 = dup. In the Perfect, the unessential 5 falls away, and 
leaves } only as the characteristic, viz. >&f2. The Part. is the 
same as this, excepting that the final vowel is prolonged; see 
in Par. B. 


§ 50. NIPHAL. 101 


The distinctive signs here are > for Perf. and Part.; and Daghesh in the 
Jirst radical of the stem for Inf., Imper., and Imperfect. The same applies 
to the wregular verbs; with the exception, that when the first radical letter 
is a Gultural, Daghesh is excluded, and the preceding vowel is prolonged 
as a compensation, (see § 62, 4). 


2. In meaning, Niphal resembles the Greek Middle Voice. 
The following particulars will illustrate it: 


(2) The most immediate meaning is reflerive} e. g. W202 to guard one’s 
self, puddaosa Fou; “D2 to conceal one’s self. Often is it employed in verbs 
designating the affections; e. g. om lo grieve one’s self; M282 to bemoan 
one’s self, comp. dodger Fat, lamentart. 

(b) Often does it designate reciprocal action ; as YD to judge, Niph. to im- 
plead each other ; 72" to counsel, Niph. to take counsel ; comp. the Midd. and 
Depon. fovister Fou, payer Fa, (mr>3) , altercari, luctari, proeliari. 

(c) Like (c) in Hithpael, and like the Greek Middle Voice, it has the mean- 
ing of the active, with the addition of self, for one’s self, etc.; e. g. bewa to 
ask for one’s self, (1 Sam. 20: 6, 28); exactly as aitotuat os tovto, évdica- 
our zitaya, to put a coat on one’s self. In such cases, instead of the Acc. 
of the direct object, the Dative of an indirect one is comprised in the form 
of the verb. 

(d) Often, however, it is used as the passive of Kal ; e. g. athe to bear (chil- 
dren), Niph. to be born. 

(e) When Kal is intransitive, or is not used, then Niphal is the passive of 
Piel or Hiphil ; e. g. 12> to be honoured, Niph. to become honoured, (passive 
of a causative verb); 372, Piel, to conceal, Hiph. to obliterate, destroy, and in 
Niphal, the passive of both these. In some cases, it comes in this way to 
agree in meaning with Kal intrans.; e. g. 2m, in Kal and in Niphal, 
means fo be sick. In the way of an active verb, it sometimes takes the Acc. 
after it, (§ 135, 2, note). 

Examples of Denominatives here are 25>) to be cordial, from 33> heart ; 
"212 to be born manful, from “35 male. 

N. B. The older Hebrew grammarians here represented Niphal as the 
direct passive of Kal. This is incorrect; for Niphal has by no means the 
characteristics of the other passives; and in Kal, there are still some re- 
mains of an old passive, (§49, 1). In Arabic, there is a Conj. which corre- 
sponds to Niphal (in-qa-ta-la), which has its proper passive. In the He- 
brew itself, there is perhaps a mark of a passive of Niphal, in DNAD, Is, 59: 3, 
Lam. 2: 14. By usage, Niphal is frequently passive ; but this is derived first 
from the reflexive. The prefix 24 has the force of a reflerive pronoun ; just 
as mm has in Hithpael.* 





* In other languages one may notice the passing over of the Reflexive into the 
Passive. This is quite plain in Sanscrit and in Greek, where the Middle precedes the 








102 §51. PIEL AND PUAL. 


Nore 1. The form of the Inf. abs. is modelled after the Perfect, and stands 
related to it just as Diup does to Sap; and it is, moreover, the only Inf. of 
this. kind. Examples are: Sw anette 1 Sam. 20: 6; 5032 desiderando, 
Gen. 31: 30; 4h: dando, Jer. 32: 4; once W57N exaudiendo, Ezek. 14: 3. 
The 4 in the last syllable (which is essentially long) i is also exhibited by the . 
forms in the Inf. abs. of Piel and Pual, and resembles many Arab. Infinitives, 
which have a long at the close. 

Nore 2. Instead of Tseri (—) in the last syllable here, Pattah is employed 
when the word is in pause; e. g. Dram, Gen. 21: 8, as also in other cases ; 
comp. § 29 ad fin. Moreover in the second and third pers. plur. fem., this 
Patiah is more frequent than the form presented in the Paradigm; e. g. 
m2im, Is, 65: 17. 

Nore 3. When a monosyllable follows the Inf, Imper., and Imperf., it is 
common to retract the tone to the penult, [in order to avoid two accented 
syllables in immediate succession]. The ending (—) then, of course, goes 
into (—). E. g. ma Sui", Ezek. 33: 12; 1 smde1, Gen. 25: 21; comp. on 
the other hand, pity “hos, 2 Sam. 21: 14. 94; 25, In some Pra this 
retraction of the tone has tech tié habitual throughout; e. g. “atin, Ex. 
23: 21; pnde1, Num. 21: 14. 

' Nore 4. For the first person sing. 52 Px (& with Hhireq) is equally com- 
mon with >ypx (Seghol) of the Paradigm ; e. g. W2IN, Ezek. 14: 3. saux, 
Gen. 21: 24. Comp. § 68, n. 3. 


§ 51. 
Piel and Pual. 


1, The characteristic of these Conjugations, (Arab. Conj. II. 
qat-ta-la, Aram. >¥P), consists in the doubling of the middle 
stem-letter. In the active (Piel), the Inf. and Imper. are the 
model of the Imperf. and the Participle ; e. g. Inf. and Imper. 
dup, Imperf. >up:, Part. >upe. The praeformatives of these two 
last have a vocal Sheva under them. In the Passive (Pual), 
the vowels are more obscure (7%), and the Inf here is of the 
same form as the Perfect. In other respects the analogy is the 
same throughout as above. In the Perfect, out of the third 
pers. in Piel, the (=) falls away and Pattah takes its place. 
This is easily accounted for, on the ground that the final vowel 





Passive. Ther in the Latin passive ending = the reflexive pronoun se. In Slayian 
and Bohemian, amat-se stands for amatur ; in Dakoromanic, 70 me lawdu — I am prais- 
ed. See Pott. Etymol. Forschh. Th.1.s. 183 ff. Th. 2. s. 92. Bopp, Vergleich. Gramm. 
s. 686 ff. 


§51. PIEL AND PUAL. 103 


in the stem-form here, is often (-) as well as (-). See note 1 
below. ? 


The 2 before the Part. in the following Conjugations, may be derived 
from "2 who ? in the sense of any one, every one. 

The characteristic of the whole of Piel and Pual, is the Daghesh in the 
middle stem-letter ; which is omitted only in case a verb has a Guttural for 
its middle stem-letter [in which Daghesh is inadmissible], or in those 
forms of a verb where the middle letter must have a Sheva, in which case 
the Daghesh is sometimes(but not often) omitted. Examples of the former 
are not needed; of the latter, are S772" instead of sn w+, Job 37: 3; 
nw for nw , Ezek. 17: 9. 31:4. Sometimes a Hateph Sheva is put 
under the litera dagessanda (§ 10, 2. note), to indicate a Daghesh omitted ; 

g. HNP? for HAP>, Gen, 2: 23. comp. 9: 2. Judg. 16: 16. In Imperf. and 
Part., the Sheva under the Praeformatives serves to distinguish these Conju- 
gations. 


2. Pre. designates various shades of meaning, as exhibited 
in the sequel : 


(a) Intensity and repetition of an action; (just as intensive and iterative 
nouns are formed by the doubling of the middle radical, (§83, 6—9).* E. g. 
pn to laugh, in Piel to joke (to laugh often or much); >xw to ask, Piel to 
beg. Hence too it designates an action as having relation to many; e. g. 
“ap to bury (one}, Gen. 23: 4; Piel to bury (many), 1 Kings 11:15. So in 
the Syriac, often. It serves too to express several gradations in actions; 
e. g. Mmm to open, Piel to loose, set free ; "DD to count, Piel to recount. 

(b) The zealous doing of a thing causes one to influence and excite 
others ; and so Piel has also a causative meaning (like Hiphil); e. g. 72> to 
learn, Piel to teach. Oftentimes it takes the shade of permitting, helping, 
declaring, pronouncing, or seeming, 80 or so; as MF fo let live, PIS to pro- 
nounce guiltless, 2% to help bring forth. 

(c) Frequently Denominatives are formed in this Conjugation, which desig- 
nate the making a thing, or busying one’s self therewith ; e. g. {2p to make a 
nest, from ipa nest; “> to throw dust, from “D> dust. Also it indicates 
the destroying or injuring of a thing, like our behead, berate, ete.; as 7 to 
tear up by the roots, to root up, from Wyo root ; 331 to cut off the tail, to smite 
the rear (of an army), from 331 tail; jx to remove ashes, from {37 ashes. 





* Analogous examples are obvious, from several languages, of the strengthening 
power of doubled-letters. E. g. Greek: TéAw to end, TédAw to bring to an end; yévo 
to commence existence, yevvaw to beget. German: reichen, recken, [ck= kk] streichen, 
strecken; with causative meaning, stechen, stecken ; wachen, wecken. Analogous to 
Pael (§ 54, 1) is cado to fall, caedo to fell. 


104 §51. PIEL AND PUAL. 


The like in some verbs, whose corresponding nouns are not now extant; as 
Spo to stone, and to remove stones,* (quasi to unstone). 


The meaning of the Passive (Pual) is obvious from the pre- 
ceding view; e. g. 221 t0 steal; Piel (the same); Pual, to be 
stolen. 


In Piel,-the proper and original meaning of a verb is not unfrequently 
preserved, when Kal has assumed a tropical meaning; and this, because 
Piel naturally indicates the first and stronger impression, and that which is 
regarded as more forcibly striking the eye. FE. g. 85" to repair, mend, in 
Piel, but in Kal to heal ; 8723 in Piel to hew, hew out, in Kal to form, create ; 
m5, in Piel to wneover, in Kal to reveal. 

With an intransitive meaning, Piel also occurs as an intensive form; but 
only in poetry; e.g. mmn to be broken in pieces, Jer. 51: 56; mms to be set 
wide open, Is. 48: 8. 60: 11; M1" to be thoroughly drunk, Is. 34: 5, 7. 

Nore 1. The verb in Piel frequently has (—) in the last syllable, instead 
of (—); e.g. "28,2. Specially does this take place before Maqqeph, 
(Ece. 9: 15. 12: 9); also in the middle of a sentence, in continued dis- 
course; while (—) is more frequent at the end. Comp. 573, Is. 49: 21, with 
ban, Jos. 4: 14. Esth. 3:1. Some verbs have, [even more usually], a Se- 
ghol in the second syllable here ; e. g. "2, "8D, 02>.—Pattah in the first 
syllable, (instead of —), occurs only in Gen. 41: 51, viz. in M2, merely on 
account of its allusion to Mv. So also with Quadriliterals, as 1878 (§ 55), 
which is analogous to Piel. 

Nore 2. In Inf, Imper., and Imperf., when a Maqqeph follows, the last 
syllable usually goes into (—); e. g. "pas, Is. 40: 20; "> wap, Ex. 13: 2. 
The same in Hithpael. In the first person, the Praeform. & regularly takes 
(—), but in a few cases (—); e. g. FIN, Lev. 26: 33, (because of the follow- 
ing long vowel); also (—), as in “308, Zech. 7: 14, (see § 23, 4. n, 2). 
With Vav consec. prefixed, we sometimes find forms pointed as S¥pxh in- 
stead of the normal >zpx, Judg. 6:9. For the normal mo>upm, forms 
occur like My>wpn, Is. 13: 18. Ezek. 34: 14. weir 

Nore 3. The Inf. absolute has the distinctive form >»p; as “D>, Ps. 118: 
18. In Pual 25s, Gen. 40: 15; but more commonly the normal form re- 
mains in Piel, like bwp, Jer. 12: 17. 82:33. 

Nore 4. Pual, in a few cases, takes short 6 instead of short w; e. g. 
pina, Nah. 2: 4, comp. 3: 7. Ps. 94: 20. The discrepance is merely ortho- 
graphic, when Shureq sometimes stands for Qibbuts; e. g. 55%, Judg. 18: 
29. 





* In Arabic, Denominatives of Conj. IL. are frequently employed to designate the 
injury of a limb, the removing of vermin, and of hurtful things. Still, this is not 
foreign to Conj. I. Comp. the Hebrew »23 (from att) to buy or sell grain. 


§ 52. HIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 105 


Nore 5. The Participle in Pual sometimes lets drop its preformative 2, 
and is then to be discriminated from the Perfect, only by its final Qamets, 
(in a like way the Part. in Niphal); e. g. mp> for mp>a, 2 Kings 2: 10, 
comp, "7237 for 32%, Judg. 13: 8; the like in Ece. 9: 12. Hos. 1: 6, 8. 


§ 52. 
Hiphil and Hophal. 

1. The characteristic of the active is a 5 prefixed to the Per- 
fect, and a* inserted in the second syllable. As to the flection 
of the verb, here (as in Piel), out of the third pers., it takes the 
analogical Pattah in the second syllable of the other persons. 


(a) The Imperf. and Part. follow the model of the Infinitive in Hiphil; 
e. g. Inf. >uprt, Imperf. S-wp>, Part. >wp2; the last two being abridged 
out of apt, swpma. (b) In the Passive, the Inf. is like the third Perf. 
sing.; and the other forms are analogous. (c) In flexion thus: >=pn, n=, 
moapN, ete.; which may be explained from the analogy of the Aramaean 
>2PX, and Arabic 2px. The Yodh of the third pers. is not so essential, 
as it might seem to be, (see Note 1 below); and probably it took its rise 
from vowels originally shorter. 

(d) The distinctive signs of these conjugations are, a “1 prefixed to the Perf, 
Inf., and Imper.; a Pattah in the first syllable of the Imperf. and Part., in 
Hiphil ; and in Hophal, a Qibbuts or a Qamets Hhatuph, i. e. short % or 6 
under the Praeformatives. 


2. The meaning is properly the causative of Kal, (more 
frequently than in Piel, § 51, 2, d). | 

E. g. 881 to go forth, Hiph, to bring forth—out—along, etc. Hp to be holy, 
Hiph. to make holy, sanctify. But there are other shades of meaning: viz. 

(a) If Kal has a transitive sense, then Hiphil governs a double Acc. ; (see 
§ 136, 1). (b) Often Piel and Hiphil coexist, with the same meaning; e. g. 
Sax he perished, Piel and Hiph. he destroyed. (c) Oftentimes only one of 
these two Conjugations is used; or, where both are employed, they have a 
diverse meaning ; e. g. 72> to be weighty, Piel to honour, Hiph. to load, burden. 
(d) Verbs inéransitive in Kal, merely become transitive in Hiphil; M23 to 
stoop down, Hiph. to incline, i. e. to bend this or that. 

Remarks. A causative and transitive meaning of Hiphil often exists, ac- 
cording to the conception of the Hebrews, where other languages make 
use of intransitive expressions. In particular, the Hebrew usually thinks of 
gelling or acquiring a physical quality, (and rightly), as an active production 
or begetting of the same ;* e. g. 720, Hiph. to become fat, to fatlen, (proper- 


* The same ideas are also conveyed by the verb rive to make; e. g. to make fat, 
for acquiring fat on one’s body, Job 15: 27. To make fruits—boughs, i. e. to produce, to 
14 


106 § 52. HIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 


ly to produce fat). So also 502, Hiph. to become weak, (to develope weakness) ; 
pin and 728, Hiph. to become strong, (to develope strength). After the same 
analogy, "82, in Hiph. to become rich, (prop. to acquire riches, to gain wealth). 
In particular is it applied to the assumption or acquisition of a colour ; e. g. 
pur to become red ; yn2br to become white. 

The Hebrew also regards many things that seem to be ofa passive na- 
ture, as of an active energy; e. g. v7, not to be silent merely, but to keep 
silence (silentium facere, Plin.); 2°3°95 to keep at rest; 5°" to endure long, 
(prop. to make long). Often this Conj. is used in an elliptical way; e. g. 
ay to act well ; mre to act badly; i. e. to make one’s life or way good, to 
make it corrupt or bad; the word 573 being implied, for it is often actually 
supplied. 

To Denominatives the same remarks apply. They show very frequently 
the producing or bringing out of a thing ; e. g. B78 to produce roots, "PA 
to produce horns. Moreover they indicate the active use of any member, as 
W"INT fo give ear, (lit. to make ears); yn, to babble, to slander, (prop. to 
make tongue, to use the tongue much), [quasi betongue]. 


The meaning of Hophal, (like that of Niphal), may some- 
times agree with that of Kal; e. g. 555 potuit, Hoph. Imperf., he 
will be able, i. e. he can. 

Nore 1. Only the third pers. sing. and plur. of Hiphil holds fast to the * 
inserted or characteristic. On the contrary, the Inf, Imper., and Imperf. of- 
ten take (—) in its room, (which is the reigning vowel in Chaldee). But the 
forms with ("—) and (—), for the most part, differ by usage in their meaning. 
When Tseri (—) is here employed, it is pure, being a simple lengthened 
tone; consequently, when the tone is moved, it may go into a short vowel 
(—); or fall away and merely substitute a Sheva, when the form of a word 
requires it; or, in case a Guttural ends the stem-word, it may take Pattah 
in its room. More particulars in the sequel. 

Nore 2. The Inf. absolute predominantly takes (—) both with and without 
the epenthetic "; e. g. WIPO, Judg. 17: 3; tan, Ex. 8: 11; tain, Amos 
9: 8. Sometimes with & for the characteristic, instead of the 7 , (after the 
Chaldee manner); as 0°DUx, Jer. 25: 3. Unusual forms, where (—) stands 
even in the Inf. construct, may be seen in Deut, 26: 12. 32: 8. 

Nore 3. The Imperative very seldom is of the form >wpH, (Ps. 94: 1 in 
pause, perhaps in Is. 43:8). Instead of this, the shorter form is usual; 
e. g. like buPh, or else the prolonged intensive one, } mbwwpo, [Imper. en- 
ergic]. Thus 7at,m2°%pnm. In the shorter form, the (— —) is shortened 
before a Maqgeph, as 82-}20, Job 22: 21. 

Nore 4. In Hiph. Imperfect the form with (—) is predominant for the Jus- 








cause to shoot forth, [like our vulgar phrase, to grow corn, rice, etc.], Job. 14: 9. Hos. 8: 
7. Comp. in Latin, corpus facere, Justin. 11. 8; robur facere, Hirt. Bell. Afric. $5; so- 
bolen—divitias facere, Plin.; and Ital. far corpo, far forze, far frutto. 


§ 52. HIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 107 


sive; e. g. 3AM7>N, do not boast, Ob. v. 12; m5" let him cut off, Ps. 12: 4. 
Specially is this form adopted, when the 4 consecutive is prefixed; as >7255, 
and he divided, Gen. 1:4. As this Psert is dork before a Maqqeph it is short- 
Ritascen fashion), the (—) in question sometimes is dropped pile goes into 
Sheva ; as 125725, Jer.9: 2; spats, 1 Sam. 14: 22. 31:2. The form n> 
with Hhireq written defective, — prow, makes no difficulty to any one who 
understands well the insertion and omission of the Quiescents. 

Nore 5. In the Participle, the sing. with (—)is of doubtful authority, Is. 53: 
3; but from such a form may easily be derived such plurals as yabrra A 
Jer, 28: 8; ny32, 2 Chron. 28: 23. The feminine sounds as meDp 5 é.-g. 
mau, Lev. 14: 21, comp. Gen. 35: 8. 

Nore 6. As to the Perfect, there are some anomalous forms; e. g. 
527223 (Seghol under 7) ; “ONAN, Is. 53: 3, (8 for 4, in the Aramaean man- 
ner); comp. Job 16: 7. 

Nore 7. In the Imperf. and Part., the characteristic 4 is regularly dropped 
after the Pracformatives; e. g. Dwps, DWP, for >upt, Supra. (For 
the omission of , see § 23,5.) But the Inf. usually reéains the 4; as 
DpH? , the connection being somewhat looser. But there are EXCEPTIONS 
to both usages; e. g. S*Wins for Swi, Ps. 116:6; so MiN7 for N31"; (this 
takes place only in verbs 15). 4s to the Inf., sometimes we find s*ax> in- 
stead of S7aNH>, 1 Sam. 2: 33, comp. Is. 23: 11. Ps. 78: 17. 

Nore 8. As to the tone in Hiphil, the Afformatives M—, 5, "—, do not take 
it. In the Perf. they have it, however, when Vav consecutive sends it upon 
them; e. g. F2"7374, Ex. 26: 33. 

Note 9. The passive Hophal has sometimes short wu, as well as short 6 ; 
although in the regular verbs this is not frequent; e. g. 220, Ezek, 32: 32, 
(also MaDwH. Ezek. 32: 19); 7en, Part. 5202, 2 Sam. 21: 20, ae 
maou Is. 14: 19). The verbs 55, however, mot fe (—) here ; (see § 9, 
9, 2), 

Nore 10, The Inf. absolute takes (—) in the last syllable, for distinction’s 
sake ; e. g. AMM, Ezek. 16: 4; 335, Josh. 9: 24, The Inf: const., although 
presented in Par. B., does not ait occur in the Scriptures. 


§ 53. 
Hithpael. 
1.. This Conj. attaches itself to Piel, inasmuch as it prefixes 
a m5 to its form. 
This nm undoubtedly has the force of a reflexive pronoun, like 35 in Ni- 
phal; (comp. Chald. mx, Syr. o8, as prefixes). Perhaps it is from the 
same root as the particle mx, ({ 113, 1). 


2. The » of the prefix undergoes a variety of changes. (q@) 


108 § 53. HITHPAEL. 


When a word begins with a Sibilant, (0, %, %), these are trans- 
posed, i. e. they exchange places with the m, ($19, 5). 

E. g. Yamin for watinn; >anon for son. When & begins a verb, 
the preceding is not only transposed, but also turned into a DO; e. g. 
pagsm. (One exception to the general rule in Jer. 49: 3.) 

(b) Before the Linguals, 7, %,m, the m of the praefix is as- 
similated, ($19, 2). 

FE. g. 1290, "un, pamm. Sometimes this assimilation takes place in 
verbs whose first letter is 3 or 53 e€. g. 8227, also NaINT; 52525 for jiDHn. 
(Once before ", in Is. 33: 10.) 

3. Hithpael has a variety of meanings, which may be ar- 
ranged as follows: 

(a) Reflexive, which is the predominant meaning; e. g. IPH, to sanctify 
one’s self; BPINN, to avenge one’s self; “INN to gird one’s self. ‘Then, to 
make one’s self what the first conjugation (in Kal) expresses; or to demean 
one’s self as such; or to show, think, or represent one’s selfas so and so, or fo 
do so and so; €. g. 1307 to show off one’s self as great ; DDMNNA to show one’s 
self as cunning, to feign wisdom, Ecc. 7: 16; “e2mn, to represent one’s self as 
rich. Sometimes it falls'in with Kal; e. g. box to mourn, (in Kal only in 
poetry); but in prose, Hithpael in the same sense; and moreover it can 
claim an Ace. case after it, (§ 155, 2. n. 1); [like the Greek Midd., to grieve 
one’s self for]. 

(b) 4 reciprocal meaning, (like Niph. lett. 6). E. g. mya, to look at one 

another, Gen. 42: 1. 
"(c) [Like the Midd. Voice in Greek], it indicates a reflex action, in some 
way, upon one’s self, (comp. Niph. lett. c). It may then take an Acc. to it- 
self; e. g. DEBIT, he stripped off his (Acc, vest); MmEmA, he loosed his (Acc. 
chains). It may also be used without an Ace. ; as qean7, to walk about for 
himself. 

(d) Seldom, yet sometimes, Passive; e. g. 1PEmh, to be reckoned ; Judg. 
20: 15, 17. 21:9. (See Niph. lett. d.) 

Tue passive Horupaet is found only in a few cases; e. g. 7PBMT, (so 
always, for 17p2Ni3), Num. 1: 47, 2: 23; navn, [as in Hoph. u for 6]; Inf. 
oan, mwa. : 

The Denominatives with reflexive meaning, are: sign to turn Jew, from 
aA, TIM; VAN, to furnish one’s self with food for a journey, from WI"¥. 

Nore. As in Piel so here, the last syllable frequently has a Pattah; 
e.g. pram, 2 Chron. 13: 7. 15: 8. So in the Inf., dmper., and Imperf. ; e. g. 
wapnn, Jos. 3:5; Dann, Ece. 7: 16. In pause, such forms take Qumets ; 
baxm, Ezek. 7:27. As in Piel we find the form frequent, which is like 
mbupm (§51.n.2, penult syllable with Pattah instead of(—); so here we 
have msbonn, Zech. 6: 7. 


§ 54. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 109 


§ 54, 
: Unusual Conjugations. 

The unusual Conjugations ($40, 2) follow partly the model 
of Piel, and are formed by the doubling of one or more of the 
stem-letters, or [where this cannot take place] by a prolonga- 
tion of the preceding vowel, and so generally by internal modi- 
fication; and partly are they analogous to Hiphil, and are form- 
ed by letters or syllables prefixed. The first class of these have 
a Passive distinguished by its end-vowel; and also a Reflexive, 
formed by prefixing ™, after the manner of Hithpael. 

Those which are analogous to Piel, and imitate it as to the 
manner of inflection, are as follows: 

(1) Porx; like buip; Pass. >wip; Reflexive buipna. (These corres- 
pond to the Arabic Conjugations II. VIL, gd-ta-la, qi-ti-la, ta-qd-ta-la). 
Other forms of Poel are: Imperf. >vip1, Part. >vipa. The passive is ob- 
vious: bwiPs, etc. The examples are few in the regular verb ; but those 
on which we may rely, are "25% (my judge), Job 9: 15; *mz5i5, 1 Sam. 
21: 3 (if indeed it should not be written "M271N); Denominative Y7'8 , (from 
ws). In verbs Ayin Doubled (53, § 66), however, the forms in question 
are very frequent; e. g. >>in, said, Win, ete. 

The meaning, like that of Piel, is often causative of Kal. It ocenrs some- 
times with Piel, and has the same meaning; as 717 and 72", to oppress ; 
sometimes it has a peculiar shade of meaning; as 220 to turn, to change, 
22d to go round, to encompass ; >2n to praise, >>%h to make foolish or mad, 
(from 537 to shine or be splendid, and so 5245 to set off one’s self as splendid, 
to act haughtily, and thence, to act like a fool, or to make one act like a fool) ; 
42 to make lovely, \2'm to compassionate ; UB to root up, U7 to take root. 

On this form (Poel, 52>), hangs the formation of the Quadriliterals by in- 
serting a letter after the close of the first syllable, (§ 30, 3); like Sup, >= 4p, 

(2) Proex, Pusan, and Hirararer; like >>up and >>up, pass. >2up, 
refler. >>2pN4, (like the Arab. Conj. IX. igtdlla and Conj. XL igtdlla. 
These forms are predominantly used to designate permanent condition, or 
colour ; e. g. j2N% to be quiet, 7227 to be green, flourishing ; pass. 222% to be 
withered ; and of all these there are no forms in Kal. Very frequent are these 
forms in verbs 13, where they supply the place of Piel and Hithpael, (§ 71, 
7). 

me like 5vbwp, with a repetition of the last two stem-letters, and em- 
ployed to designate rapid and repeated movements or emotions of the 
smaller kind; as "m7md to go swiftly round, to beat (as the heart does), Ps. 
38: 11, from “m> to travel about ; “27271, vehemently to ferment, to bluster, 


110 §55. QUADRILITERALS. 


Lam. 1: 20. In the construction of nouns, this form designates litileness, 
smallness, (§ 83, 23). Nearly related to this, is, 

(4) Pireex; which consists in the doubling of the two essential conso- 
nants in the stems of 33 and 13; e. g. 2030 from 20 = 330; 5222 from 
b> (12). This form also usually designates swiftly repeated motion, (even 
as all languages are prone to repetitions of sound); e. g. 5351 to chirp, bux 
to tinkle, “373 to gurgle, H2D2 to flutter, (from 55> to fly) .* 

On the other hand; the following forms attach themselves to 
LMiphil. 

(5) Trenet; like >UPR, with ™ prefixed ; e. g. >a , (Denom. from 53%) ; 
Hann, Imperf. Ann" to emulate, Jer. 12: 5. 22: 15, (from mn to be hot— 
zealous). In Aramaean the like is found; e. g. pain to interpret. 

(6) Suapne.; like vpw,(more frequent in Syriac); e. g. am>w, from 
and io flame up; but in Hebrew only the noun n3>w (flame) appears, (§ 
83. No. 35). 

Only in solitary examples forms appear, (7) Like ybLp , pass. UYD; e. g. 
obo, scaly, Ex. 16: 14, (from om or FwM to scale off). (8) Like bpup; 
as in the noun mor a violent shower, (from 71). (9) Like >rpMd, (fre- 
quent in Rabbinic), arising out of the mixture of Viph. and Hithpael ; as 
yon for DIM, Ezek. 23: 48; "p22 for “B22, Deut. 21: 8. 

Worthy of note is ar ar ini Sesser: which is usually derived from “xn. 
It is, however, a Denominative from mxixm, and this imitates (like the. vul- 


gar taratantara) the tone of a trumpet. Enn. apud Servium ad Aen. TX. 
503. 


§ 55. 
Quadriliterals. 

Of the formation of these we have already spoken ($30, 3). 
The few verbs of this kind, (of nouns there are many), are 
modelled after Piel; one only after Hiphil. All the cases that 
occur follow: 

Perf. 1275 , Job 26: 9, (with Pattah in the first syllable, after the manner 
of the Chaldee). Imperf. 52°20727, Ps. 80: 14.— Passive 8225, Job 33: 25. 


— Pat. 22739, 1 Chron. 15: 27,— After Hiphil, pawn, ‘en. 13: 9, al. 
(from the noun bin), 








* Comp. tinnio, tintinnus; the German Ticktack, Wirwar, Klingklang [Eng. vul- 
gar ding-dong|. ‘The repetition of a letter in verbs Ayin Doubled, brings about the 
same purpose; as in ppd to lick, pox to rap, 4BM to tap, to trip along. Elsewhere 
these niceties are expressed by Diminutives; in Latin, these end in -z/lo, as cantillo; in 
German the ending is made by -eln, -ern, as flimmern (to glimmer), trillern (to trill), 
trdpfleln (to drop, trickle); and from this one may see the relation of these forms with 
the Diminutives mentioned under No. 8 above. 


§ 56. VERBAL PRONOUN-SUFFIXES. 111 


[C] Verbal Pronoun-sufixes.* 
§ 56. 

The Accusative of a pronoun, which follows an active verb, 
can be designated in two ways; (1) By uniting with the suffix- 
pronoun, the usual sign of the Acc., viz. m8 (§ 101); as ink >up. 
(2) By a pronoun-suflix appended to the verb; as A>2p or ep, 
The last is the usual method ($33); and here we speak only 
of this. We are concerned only with éwo things here, viz. the 
form of the suffix, and the changes which the form of the verb 
undergoes in consequence of its being appended. 


§ 57. 
The Suffixes of the Verb. 
1. These Suffixes express the Acc. case of the personal Pro- 
noun. They are as follows: 
Sing. 1. com. “3; "2—}; "2— me. 
bs 1) Iz (cha) ae ia Dior bhi 
phideilanales Aci). den 
3 ae Sy 15 I, (4), i; 1n— him. 
fi. 5 F3 O she. 

Plur: 1. com. 3; %—; %2-_ us (nos). 

2. mM. 22, D2 


you (vos). 


fi 2 Be 
{m.oy,$0; o> (out of Sy-—-), 8--; &> (out of =F), 
8.4 Do=, poet. i, 2, 7a, them (eos). 


Uf vd 45 > I-25, her (eas). 

2. That these suffixes-are abridged forms of the personal 
pronouns, is quite clear for the most part, and only a few forms 
need some explanation. 

(a) In the suffix forms of the second person, (7, 62, j2), there appears 





* We here connect the general principles of attaching suffixes to verbs, with the 
regular verb, in order to exhibit their true nature. In respect to the irregular verbs, 
all the variations from the regular usage will be noticed in their appropriate place. 

t For the other cases under No. 1, see § 119, 3. 

¢ The form ©r- occurs very seldom as a verbal-suffix, (Deut. 32: 26); 44- does 
not occur at all. They are here presented as ground-forms, because they are fre- 
quently connected with nouns and prepositions. 


112 § 57, VERBAL PRONOUN-SUFFIXES. 


to be at the basis a kindred lost form of the pronoun Mm, with a 5* in 
stead of the m, (MDI8, HDX; DX); which seem to be chosen, in this case, 
to distinguish them from the afformative suffixes of the Perfect, (§ 44, 1). 

(b) In the third person, masc., the feeble h in "5 is dropped, and then 
d—u remains, out of which 6 (§7, 1) comes, which is usually written i- 
more seldom H—.—lIn the fem., the suffixes from 874 would analogically be 
, H-, 4—; but, to avoid cacophony, the 4 goes into H-, where the pro- 
per consonant remains, and as such takes Mappiq. Once nn for 5, Ezek. 
41: 15, as in Chald. and Arabic. 


3. The variety of forms arises from a regard to the various 
phases which the verb assumes, to which the pronoun is an- 
nexed. In almost every case, ¢iree forms are distinguished : 

(a) One which begins with a consonant ; as "3-, iN—, 52-, DF-, B-, ete. 
These are appended to the forms of verbs which end in a vowel; e. g. 
ngbep, ammbup. 

(b) A second and a third with the so-called wnion-vowels, ("2—, "2-), for 
the verbal forms which end in a consonant; and of these, "2— belongs to 
the Perfect; e. g. "2200p, mbup, boup. For the Imperfect, the union-vowel 
(—) is the usual one, (in a few cases —); and the same for the Imperative ; 
e. g. IMUP., Imper. ®20p.—Of 4 the same may be said as of 4h—, out 
of which it comes.—In the forms 7—, 83—, j2—, the union-vowel is only a 
Sheva vocal ; e. g. 72WP, B24, j2>upP [-l*khem, -l*khen]; or, when the 
verb has a final Guttural, 7—, etc.; as net. In pause, this union-half- 
vowel Sheva goes into (—), having the tone, as rot 

Nore 1. Forms pecuLiaR AND UNcoMMoN. The second pers. sing. masc., 
m2, 1K. 18: 44; in pause 5-, Is. 55:5. Again, H2— Prov. 2:11; fem. 
"2—, "2—, Ps. 187: 6, and often in the later Psalms. (Also 5 in the Per- 
fect, Judg. 4: 20, against the rule)—In the third masc., 7 Ex. 32: 25. Num. 
23: 8. In third fem., H— without Mappiq, Num. 15: 28. Jer. 44: 19—The 
forms ‘72—, \72—, Va— are exclusively poetic, excepting Ex. 23:31. For ¥- 
stands 572— once, in Ex. 15: 5. On the rise of these forms, see § 32, n. 7. 

Nore 2. If one compares these verbal with the nominal suffixes (§ 88), 
he will see, (a) That here is a greater variety of forms than there, (because 
the relations and forms of the verb are more various). (6) The verbal suf- 








* Marks of the same are found in the Afformatives of the Aethiopic: ga-tal-ka, thou 
hast killed; also in the Samaritan, (see Ges. Anecdota Orientalia, I. 43). Comp. the 
remark on "A>up,§ 44,1. In general, the forms ¢ and k not unfrequently inter- 
change. ; 

+ The usual name union-vowel we retain, although it seems to rest on mere exter- 
nal appearance, and is somewhat vague. ‘These union-vowels appear to be the frag- 


ments of old verbal endings. Let any one reflect on the Heb. form g¢tal-ani, in com- 
parison with the Arabic gatala-ni. 


§ 57, SUFFIXES OF THE VERB. 113 


fix, when it differs from the nominal one, is longer; e. g."2—, "2—, "3— (me); 
but "— (mine). The reason is, that the object of the verb is less closely 
connected with the verb, than the pronoun possessive with the noun; on 
which account the former may be expressed by as it were a separate word, 
(§ 119, 3). 

4. ‘The suflix acquires more stability, at times, by rejecting 
the usual union-vowel, and taking a union-syllable in its room, 
(viz. >=, 2-), which is inserted before it, in the Imperfect and for 
the most part when it is in Pause. 

E. g. 323935, Ps. 72: 15; 9225324, (-dhan) Ps. 50: 23. Commonly this 
is called Mun "epenthetic ; it might more properly be named Mun demonstra- 
tive. This Vun is, for the most part, drawn into one with the suffix 3, and 
in this way a series of new forms arise; viz. 


1 Pers. =— for "2--; ":-—— for 3—. 
2 Pers. 3--, once 32-— (Jer. 22: 24). 
3 Pers. — for 42-—-, also 2}— (Num. 23:13). fem. m2— for 


mm. 
1 Plur. :— for 3--. (This 2 is not inserted in the other 
Betony. 


Note. The forms written fully with the Vim, are rare, and merely 
poetical, Jer. 5: 22. In the third fem. sing., moreover, they do not occur; 
nor in the first pers. plural. The contracted [Daghesh’d] forms are some- 
what frequent, specially in pause, 

This Nun is of a demonstrative nature, and it belongs not to the verb it- 
self, but to the pronoun which follows it, and serves energically to designate 
the Acc. case. In Chaldee, besides the un, there is a Yodh consonant al- 
so inserted. In Samaritan, 3 is added in the Perfect; and in like cases M 
also is inserted. 


§ 58. 
Perfect with pronominal Suffixes. 


1. The endings (afformatives) of the Perfect have, in con- 
nection with pronoun-suffixes, in part a form different from what 
is found elsewhere; viz. j 

(a) In the third pers. sing. fem., "=, =, the original feminine 
ending, for 5-. 

(b) In second masc. sing. not only 4-, but also m-, to 
which the union-vowel attaches itself; yet only with "3-. 

(c) The second sing. fem. 7", (the older form for ), comp. "FX 

15 


114 § 58. PERFECT WITH SUFFIXES. 


and fem. 2 pers. "M>up, § 32, n. 4. § 44, n. 4), which, taking the 
form of the first person, can be distinguished from it, only by 
virtue of the context. 

(d) The second plur. masc., *»- for h-, is easily explained 
by the corresponding Arab. pron. antum, and verb gataltum. 

So also the Chaldee, AMX, sIMewP , corresponding to Bmx, pm>Up, (§ 32, 
n.5). Of the fem. TneUp, no example is to be found with suffixes. Pro- 
bably it was read, with them, as the masc. form is. 

We shall first present the suffix-forms of the verb in the Perf. 
of Hiphil; because here, neither the stem-letters, nor the tone 
(see No. 2), is changed throughout. 


Hipnu. Perr. 


Sing. Plur. 
3m. wpn : 3c. UPA 
3 f. nosepn 
2m. NewP, ReVPN 2 m. EPA 
2 f.neepn, NewPN 
1 c. *Meupn 1c. bupn 


2, The tone inclines to the suffix appended, so as not to 
rest upon the stem. On this account, Kal demands several 
vowel-changes, which the shifting of the tone brings with it. 


The forms assumed in Kal, by reason of the suffixes, are the 
following: viz. 


Kau Perr. 

Sing. Plur. 
3m. >2P (YP, note 1) 3 cup 
Bf. mbep , 
2m. N>up (MUP, note 4) 2 m. wnbup 
3 f."nevp (M2eP, note 4) 

1 c. "MUP 


1 c. 22Up 

The connection of these forms with their respective suffixes, see fully 
exhibited in Par. C. The same shows, that (—) in Piel goes sometimes 
into (—), and sometimes into Sheva vocal. 

Nore 1. The suffixes of the second pers. plur., D2—, j2-, are, (like pr-, 
j7-), of the graver sort, and always bring down the tone upon them. 
Hence they are usually named grave suffixes. They of course occasion a 
greater change in the third pers. sing. masc., than elsewhere takes place ; 


§ 58. PERFECT WITH SUFFIXES. 115 


e. g. no>bup. A still greater change is wrought in the forms of nouns, by 
these suffixes, § 88. 

Nore 2. In the third sing. masc., 5432p is contracted into up, accord- 
ing to § 23,5. In like manner, the second masc. sing., snf>2P goes into 
imbup. 

Nore 3. The third sing. fem. r2up (= 2¥p) has a two-fold peculiarity, 
viz. (a) It draws down the tone upon itself, (excepting when D2—, j2—, are 
appended, see n. 1), and so it takes the suffixes which make a syllable of 
themselves, without any union-vowel, viz, "2-, F-, W—, M—, 12—-, D2-, j2-, 
(against the general rule in § 57, 3, a). (b) The other suffixes take wnion- 
vowels, but the tone is thrown back upon the penult, so that the final vow- 
els are short; e. g. j=, O-, as in FMSN, Ruth 4: 15; onbrw, Is. 47: 14; 
pna24, Gen. 31: 32, For un-, yn=-, the form in pause is "27—, Ps. 69: 
10; 4m—, Cant. 8: 5. Sometimes euphony (without pause) einploys the 
same form, as ynean, ib. The forms IM2up , nm>up are employed as 
contracts of *AM2BP, AM2UP, (after the analogy of 52— for 4m2—, see in § 57, 
4, third pers.). 

Nore 4. In the second masc, sing., the form m2up lies everywhere at the 
basis, rom the suffixes have no union-vowel, Cictiay in the, case © BRED 
2. ‘In the a sing. ‘fern “n- is ‘Womietiines erritie defective as * sant, 
Jer. 15: 10. Cant. 4:9. Ex. 2:10. For the fem. with suff. the masc. is 
sometimes employed; as "2h22UH, (thou [fem.] hast adjured us), Cant. 5: 9. 
Josh. 2:17. Sometimes (— 7s is the penult vowel for the fem. with suff; as 
aT, (thow [fem.] hast let us down), Josh. 2: 18, 

Nore 5. Of the verb midd. O, one specimen occurs, in Ps, 13: 5, of 
shortened 6 with the accent thrown forward ; e. g. ">>" (Qam. Hat.). 


§ 59. 
Imperfect, with pronoun suffixes. 

In the forms of the Imperfect, which end in the final stem- 
letter, when the suffix is added, the vowel Hholem either falls 
away and becomes a mere Sheva vocal, or, before 4-, 52-, j3-, 
a short 6; (See in Par, C). 


Once Hhateph Qamets (_ ) is employed, in Jer. 31: 33. Instead of mbSpn ’ 
in third and second plur. Imperf., the form sUPM is employed before suf- 
fixes, Cant. 1: 6, Jer. 2: 19. Job 19: 15; sometimes the same form without 
suff. is used as fem., Jer. 49: 11. Ezek. 37: 7. The form with Mun demon- 
strative (§ 57, 4), stands principally at the end of a sentence. 

Note 1. The verbs with Imperf. A, (to which class all that have a Gut- 
tural for the third stem-letter belong), retain, in the second syllable of the 
Imperf. and the Imper. the full A; and when this comes to stand in a 


116 § 60. INF., IMPER., AND PART. WITH SUFFIXES. 


open syllable, it goes of course into Qamets (_); e. g. ™m>8, Is. 6: 8; 
sovinds, Job 29: 14; snaBy37, Job 3: 5. . 

Nots 2. In the way of exception, but yet not unfrequently, the wnion- 
vowel of the Imperf. with suffix is sometimes(—). E. g. nvind., Ex. 29: 
30, comp. 2: 17. Gen. 19: 19. 29: 32. 

Note 3. Sometimes the suffixes are appended to the plur. forms in 4'—}; 
e. g. "235827, Job 19: 2, Elsewhere they are always appended without a 
union-vowel, as "22583727, Prov. 1: 28. Is. 60: 7, 10. Jer. 5: 22. 

Nore 4. In Piel, the (— -) goes into Sheva vocal, (like the 6 in Kal); but 
before the suffixes 5-, D2—, j2, it is shortened into Seghol; e. g. FSI", 
Deut. 30:4; more seldom into Hhireq parvum ; as D332Nx , Job 16: 5, comp. 
Ex. 31: 13. Is. 25:1. In Hiphil, the Hhireg epenthetic normally remains ; 
but in a few cases it falls out, and we have forms like H77W2m, Ps. 65: 10. 
1 Sam, 17: 25, comp. § 52, n. 4. 


§ 60. ~ 
Inf., Imper., and Farticiple with suffixes. 

J. The Inf. of an active verb may take suffixes in the Acc., 
and then it takes to itself the verbal suffix; e. g. “>¥p to kill me. 
The Inf. as a nomen verbale, may have the nominal suffix, as 
“bop the killing of me, (}180,1,n.). It sounds, in this case, as 
Segholate nouns of the form yp [when they take a suffix], i. e. 
bup; for with this form >4p is nearly related, (§ 90, Parad. VL.) 

Nore 1. The Inf. with final (-—) sounds, before suffixes, as 320, Ma2U, 
Gen. 19: 33; which is after the manner of nouns like Was. 

Norte 2. Differing from the analogy of Segholate nouns, are forms which 
occur with 7—-, S2-, J2-; €. g. D252N, your eating, Gen. 3: 5; WV22, thy 
standing, Obad. v. 11. But ean after the analogy of Segholates we find 
other forms; e. g. B2IXP, your harvesting, Lev. 19: 9; and BzON2 (mo- 
ds*khem) your despising, Is. 30: 12. 

2, The leading suffix-form of the Imper., >¥p, is explained 
in the same way as the Infinitive. 

The forms ">u 2? nPop, remain unchanged before suffixes. Instead of 
the form m3bep, the suffix form is like the mase. noup. Respecting "3M>v , 
see § 59, n. 1. 

3. The Participles shorten their vowels agreeably to the 
rules which belong to nouns; e. g. see uP, bupe, in § 90, Par. 


VII. 


On the difference between *>up and "22up, see § 132, n. 


§§ 61, 62. verBsS WITH GUTTURALS. 117 


ae Of the irregular Verb.* 


(A). VerBs wiTH GUTTURALS. 
§ 61. 


Those verbs, in which one of the stem-letters is a Guttural, 
differ from the regular verb, in accordance with the prescriptions 
of general rules, § 22. Th*8 and = belong to the present sub- 
ject of our inquiries only as consonants, and not as vowel-letters. 
Resh (7) participates in only a portion of the anomalies which 
belong to the Gutturals, § 22,4. We shall separate, for the 
sake of convenient inflection, the cases where the Guttural con- 
stitutes the first, the second, or the third stem-letter. The Para- 
digms marked D, E, F, (at the close of this work), in which 
only such Conjugations are omitted as are altogether regular, 
will make the whole matter quite plain; and this and some fol- 
lowing §§ are designed for illustration of them. 


§ 62. 
Verbs first Guttural.t 

The departures here from the regular verb sti be reduced to 
the following particulars: viz. 

1, When the first stem-letter at the Bepiiting of the verb 
would regularly have a simple Sheva, it here takes a composite 
one. 

E. g. Inf. 123, 558; Perf. om yay , meen from ypM, (see § 10, 2. § 22, 3). 

2. When Praeformatives are employed, these take to them- 
selves the short vowel that corresponds with that which is in 
the composite Sheva under the first stem-letter, (§ 28, 2). 

E. g. tad", D>m5, FON. 

Vice versa, if to the Praeformative belongs a vowel which is 
characteristic of form, then the first stem-letter takes a Sheva 
composite, which will be analogous to this. 

E. g. Niph, ‘v233 (for 222); Hiph. 123m (for 7031) 5 Inf. "220, Im- 


* See a view of the Classes of Verbs, in § 41. 

{ft In some former editions of my Heb. Grammar, I proposed the technical and 
analogical names, Pe Guttural, Ayin Guttural, and Lamedh Guttural. Roediger 
chooses first, second or middle, and third Guttural. It is unimportant which is pre- 
ferred.—S.] 


118 § 62. VERBS FIRST GUTTURAL. 


perf. 132; Hoph. Perf. ‘vax, Imperf: ap". (Respecting the Methegh 
in these forms, see § 16, 2, a). 

Many verbs first Guttural, especially those which begin with 
m, when a Praeformative is annexed, take a simple Sheva un- 
der the Guttural, instead of a composite one; but in this case 
the Praeformative takes the same short vowel which the com- 
posite Sheva (if inserted) would exhibit. 

E. g. Yarn, wanz, Niph. 3253, “382 (part.), Hiph. ont. Gramma- 
rians call this the rough conjunction, the other the smooth one. Both forms 
often occur in respect to the same verb. 


3. When in such forms as 7227, 729", the vowel of the ast 
syllable comes by declension to fall away, i. e. becomes a She- 
va, the composite Sheva under the Guttural goes into the cor- 
responding short vowel. 


E. g. aps, but plur. "722" (ya-am-dhu); 3153. But here also the 
rough conjunction frequently is chosen; e. g. spans, apt (also spt). 
Comp. § 22, 4. § 28, 3. 

4.. In Inf., Imp., and Imperf. Niphal, where the first stem-let- © 
ter would normally be doubled, the doubling is of course omitted 
before the Guttural, and the Praeformative takes (-). 


E. g. The regular verb would be as 2pm, >wP%, but in a verb first Gut- 
tural, as Wa2it, WI (for 1723"). 


NOTES. 
I. Kal. 


Nore 1, In verbs NB, the Inf. const. and Imper. take (—) under the x, (§ 
22, 4. n. 2); therefore “8, Job. 38:3; 3Oy, Hos. 3:1; 55x, with Gerun- 
dial praefix, TAN? , >28>. In cases where the tone is moved forward, and 


the voice hastens toward it, the shorter (——) is put in the room of (——); 


a 


as UND PaRB, Num. 26: 10; and so Bm 28 (not “&) because of the tone on 
bh. 

In other forms of the Imper., the Guttural often exercises its influence 
over the vowel, and makes it Seghol ; e.g. 393, Job 33: 5; "Burs. 47:2; 
particularly when the second radical is a Guttural, as 1378, Ps. 31: 24. In 
Prov. 20: 16, Pattah is used, as mban ; 

Nore 2. The Jmperf. with A, as the Paradigm shows, has regularly (——) 
at the commencement; and in the rough conjunction it takes (—-), e. g. 
pam, 27; even in verbs first Guttural and also > this takes ‘place, as 
mim, ozm3. Sometimes, but not very frequently, this (——) is adopted, 


§63. VERBS MIDDLE GUTTURAL. 119 


when the verb has an Imperf. O; e. g. FONT, Hw. Altogether sui generis 
is 29m, Ezek, 23: 5. 

Oftentimes (——) goes into the more rapid (__), when the tone is advanced 
in the same word, (§ 27. n. 5); e. g. MOM, plur. ms4Ox7; and analogically, 
“on, plur. on". 


Il. Hiphil and Hophal. 

Norte 3. The principle exhibited in Note 2 above, respecting (——) and 
(==), is applicable here also, when the Vav consecutive is prefixed to the 
Perfect Hiph., because the tone is then thrown forward ; e. g. 7225, but 
with Vav, hvavmy, Num. 3: 6. 8: 138. 27: 19; sm asm, with v7 “AIa2T. 

Nore 4. In Hiph. Perf. (=—) is sometimes chaitoed into (—=); and in 
Hophal (——) goes occasionally into (=), inasmuch as the short vowel is sup- 
ported by a Methegh, and may therefore be extended, as R732, Josh. 7: 
7; Moon, Hab. 1: 15; Hoph. 2395, Nah, 2: 8. 


Ill. Peculiarities. 

Nore 5. In the two verbs "Hh (to be) and 5M (to live), the Guttural is 
seldom treated as one: e. g. Imperf. mam, am. Under the simple Inf. 
form, the usual law of Gutturals has its influence, as mins, (see No. 1 of 
this §); but when any accession is made, the normal punctuation is the 
rule; as nisn>, ninm>, on, Ezek. 37: 5, 6. 


§ 63. 
Verbs middle Guttural; e. g. vm. 


In this class of verbs, the departures from normal punctuation 
are comparatively unimportant, and are limited to the following :* 

1, Where the Guttural would normally have a simple She- 
va, it here takes a composite one, (which is -). 

E. g.:2r3, Imperf. sem", Imper. Niph. semen. In the Imper., more- 
over, the comp. Sheva determines the preceding vowel ; as "oMw, TUT 5 
and the same in Inf. Kal fem., as MaiN, TINs. 

2, Inasmuch as the Gutturals prefer the A sound, and ope- 
rate less on the vowels which follow, than on those which pre- 
cede, the normal vowels of the Inf. Kal,and of the Imperf. Niph. 
usually remains unchanged. 

E. g. 2img, ving, and so, for the most part, Niph. and Piel Imperf.; as 
pm>3,nm2. Even the more feeble Seghol (after a Vav consec.) may remain 
in such cases; e. g.2m3%3. It is only in the Jmper. and Imperf. Kal, that 


* Hophal (not in the Paradigm) is declined as Kal; Aiphil is regular. 


120 § 64. VERBS THIRD GUTTURAL. 


the last syllable becomes Pattah by the influence of the Guttural, even in 
transilive verbs; e. g. OY, UMW; Pst, P22; “MZ, 35, (seldom as 
niin). In Piel Perf., Roeecey Pattah is more common with verbs second 
Guttural, than in the regular verb; e. g. DMD. 


2, In Piel, Pual, and Hithpael, the Daghesh forte is inad-. 
missible, ($22, 1); but in the greater number of examples, the 
short vowel remains before 5,5, and ¥, the Guttural having a 
Dag. forte implicitum, § 22, 1. 

E. g. Piel poy, Pual ys, Hithp. 25. The prolonging of the vow- 
el is not common except before 8, and always before “; e. g. jN’2, 723, 
227, 722, seldom as 5x3. 

Nore 1. In the forms of Piel and Hithp., the tone is sometimes thrown 
back on the penult, and then the (—) of the ultimate is shortened. Thus, (a) 
Before monosyllabic words, according to $29, 3. b; e. g. pw niu, Deut. 
17: 12, comp. Gen. 39: 14, Job 8: 18, (b) After Vav consecutive ; e. g. 33%, 
Gen. 1: 22; 2351, Ex. 10: 11, comp. Gen, 39: 4. 

Nore 2. Peculiar departures from rule are some forms in Perf. Piel; as 
wns, Judg. 5: 28, (for m8); and so “prvar", (for “2NvaM" or “3rver), Ps. 


Bl: 7. 


§ 64. 
Verbs third Guttural; e. g. n28. 


I, According to the principles in § 22, 2, two cases occur 
here, the special usage of which should be shown; viz. (1) 
Hither the normal vowel of the last syllable is retained, and then 
the Guttural takes a Pattah furtive under it; or, (2) The last 
vowel is dropped, and then a Pattah comes in its place. Par- 
ticulars follow: 

(a) The strong immutable vowels, "—, i, 4, (§ 25, 1), always remain. 
Hence Inf. abs. Kal n>, Part. pass. nib, Hiph. >, Imperf. nmin, 
Part. n"3tv2. So in regard to the more mutable O of the Inf. const., 9>%5, 
which thus distinguishes itself from the Imper., (as in verbs second Guttu- 
ral). 

(6) The O of the Imper. and Imperf. Kal goes over into Pattah; e. g. 
m>us, mow; with suff. “bus, (§ 59. n. 1). 

(c c) In all the forms which take (—) in the last syllable, both modes of 
pointing may coéxist; although usage somewhat distinguishes them. E. g. 
Kal and Piel, the Part is mui, nbz, but in stat. const. of the same, we 
have m2, nawe. 

In the Imperf. and Inf. Niph. and in Perf., Imperf., Inf. Piel, the form 
with (+) stands at the beginning, or in the middle of a sentence ; while that 


§65. VERBS jb. ~ 121 


at the end takes (—) with Pattah furtive. E. g. 2939, Num. 27:4; 375, 
Num. 36: 3; >p31, Hab.3:9; span, Ezek. 13:11; 352, Hab. 1:13. Num. 
4: 20. The Inf. abs. holds fast the (— —); the Inf. const. loses it; e. g. mbu, 
Deut. 22: 7, elsewhere mbw. 

In the shortened forms of Imper. and Imperf. Hiphil, only (—) is employed ; 
as Maxon, mvas. In the Inf. abs. the (—) remains; as 237; while the 
Inf. const. is as M27; Job. 6: 26. 

2, When the Guttural has a Sheva here, it retains the sim- 
ple Sheva; and this because it is really always quiescent. 

E. g. mb, "m2. But in the second fem. of the Perf., the helping-vowel 
(—) comes in the place of Sheva simple; e.g. mM3W (§ 28,4). More seldom 
in such cases as MMD>, Gen. 30: 15, and mp2, 1 Kings 14: 3. 

The smoother conjunction with Sheva composite occurs only in some ex- 
amples of first pers. plur. Perf., when the tone is thrown back; as 9327", 
Hos. 8: 2. Gen, 26: 29. In other cases the (—) instead of the (—) is found 
before the suffixes ., 53., j3.5 e. g. WIN, 1 Sam. 16: 1: aDUR Gen. 
21: 37; FEvawN, Jer. 18: 2. 


(B) Contract Verbs. 
§ 65. 
Verbs 35, or first radical Nun; ¢. g. 32. 

The irregularities of these verbs depend on the feebleness of 
the nasal letter Nun. They are comprised in the following par- 
ticulars : 

3, The Inf. const. and Imper. frequently lose their Nun (§ 
19, 3), which would here be pointed with Sheva vocal; e. g. 
wa for 432. But the Inf., in such cases, usually assumes a fem. 
ending, viz. n——, (after a Guttural r—-), §79, 2; e.g. nvi from 
32; ni from 222. The Imper. abridged, has usually (-) for its 
vowel; but sometimes (-), asin jm from jm. The prolonged 
form is common here; e. g. 72m. 

2. In all cases where Nun comes, by reason of a Praeform- 
ative, to stand in the end of a syllable, it assimilates itself to the 
second stem-letter, (§ 19, 2). 

E. g. Imperf. Kal; as 55% (yip-pol) for 582"; wan for wax; jo" for jn. 
The Imperf. O is the most frequent; that in A is actually of rare occur- 
rence, but is feasible; that in E occurs only in the instance given. Out of 
Kal, we have Niph. v32 for t222; Hiph. 7371; Hoph. wan (always short w) , 

All the other forms are regular; e. g. Perf., Inf. absolute, Part. 
in Kal; Piel, Pual, Hithpael, ete. 

16 


122 §66. VERBS AYIN DOUBLED. 


In the Parad. H, only the irregular Conjugations are presented. 


The distinctive mark of this class of verbs is, that a Daghesh 
forte in the second radical immediately follows a Praeformative. 
But still this is not always sufficient; for some verbs =5 (§ 70), 
and some >3 (§66,5), assume the same appearances. The 
Imper., moreover, as 3, (also “%2, Gen. 19: 9), and jn, is like to 
that of verbs"). 


Nore 1. It belongs rather to the list of exceptions, than of normal forms 
when the cases No. 1 and 2above hold fast their Mun; e. g. Imper. 823, 
yDb) (2d plur.), Inf. 253 (also mpi), Imperf. 923", Jer. 3: 5, (elsewhere sin). 
In Niphal the Nun radical is never retained ; in Hiph, aud Hoph., very sel- 
dom; as 77727, Ezek, 22:20; sprig, Judg. 20: 31. 

On the other hand, when the second stem-letter is a Guttural, normally 
Nun is not dropped; e. g. 2032. Seldom does the Nun fall out in such a 
case; e. g. as in MM tala nino), Niph. 093) for 533. 

Nore 2. In the anomalies of these verbs, the verb mp> has taken a part; 
for the > in this is treated afier the manner of 3, ($19, 2). Hence Imperf. 
mp, Imper. mp (rarely MP2); Inf. const. mn, Hoph. Imperf. npr. But 
Niphal i is regular, mp>>. 

Nore 3. The verb \m) has this irregularity, moreover, viz., that the third 
radical assimilates itself like a feeble letter; e. g. "Mm3 for "Mim2; mM? for 
mom; Inf. const. hm for n3m (§ 19,2), with suffix "mm. 


§ 66. 
Verbs Ayin doubled (22), or middle radical doubled. 


J. The principal irregularity of these verbs consists in this, 
viz., that the last two stem-letters are often uttered together as 
one doubled letter; e. g. "30 for 1330; and this, even in cases 
when a full vowel would normally stand between them, as 2 
for 229, 29 for 229. Only those forms remain wncontracted, 
which have immutable vowels, or a Daghesh forte characteris- 
tic; e. g. aap, 32io, 320. 

2, ‘The contracted monosyllabic stem obtains throughout the 
vowel which would normally belong to the second syllable of 
the full stem, and which (in a regular ser) comprises the essen- 
tial characteristic of the verb, (§ 43, 1 1). 


E. g. Perf. a0 for 239; Inf. 30 for 330; 305 for 3205, (comp. No. 6). 


3. After this contraction, the last letter ought properly to 
have a Daghesh forte. This, however, (according to §20, 3), 


§66. VERBS AYIN DOUBLED. 123 


cannot be written at the end of a word; and the duplication of 
the radical letter makes its appearance by Daghesh forte, only 
when a form receives increase at the the end; as "26, 125, Im- 
perf. "25, but not 20, 30, ete. 

4. When the Afformative begins with a consonant, (2,4), 
then, in order that the doubling of the the radical may be made 
more audible, a vowel is inserted between the stem-syllable 
and the afformative. 


This vowel in the Perfect is i; in the Imper. and Imperf. it is", e. g. 
miso, 12150, Imperf. third plur. fem. m"a0n, The Arabian writes regu- 
larly m7, but pronounces vulgarly m™72 maddit ; ; according to Lumsden, 
maddata ; aiich last is more analogous to the laws of Hebrew inflection.* 


5. The Praeformatives of the Imperf. Kal, Perf. Niphal, and 
of Hiphil and Hophal, (which, in the mode of contraction above 
described, come to stand by themselves in an open syllable), 
take the long vowel which corresponds with the short one that 
they would normally have had, (§ 27, 2, a). 


E. g. Imperf. O, in Kal 305, for 335% = 230" [comp. § 27, 3.n. 3, the 
Arabian moreover says ydq-tul]; the Imperf. A takes another form; e. g. 
72" for "2". In Hiphil Perf, 207 for 2305; Inf. 305 for 3305; Hophal, 
305m for n30n. The long vowel of the Praeformative throughout, (4 only 
in Hophal excepted) i is pure and mutable.t 

Besides this usual method of constructing these forms, there is also 
another, (which is the predominant one in Chaldee), according to which 
the Imperf. runs thus: 357 (yissobh) out of 2207; Imperf. Hiphil, op7 out of 
ban?; Hoph. m5 out of mm>7,so that the first syllable is made sharp by 
the Soabling of the first radical. Even when accession is made to these 
forms, the second radical remains simple and without any Daghesh; which 
seems to imply, that the doubling of the first radical is a sufficient com- 





* The common explanation whichis here given of this epenthetic vowel, inserted in 
order to make the Daghesh letter more audible, may suffice ; particularly if one com- 
pares the resemblance between this and some forms in verbs 45; e. g. comp. i239 
and the Arabic maddita with the forms n->3 or "53; and again comp. m"S0n 
with m2"ban. Gesenius (edit. 13th of this Gramm. ) brings forward the suggestion, 
whether the 4 and — , epenthetic here may not be a part of the appended pronoun, de- 
riving?n2>— from man. The jhe eis by the Egyptian, where eN 70K (thou), 
eNTOTeN (ye), ANoK (I, comp. "258), ete., show a corresponding O. 

Tt It might appear easier to peta the form of the Imperf. 25>, (also the Imperf. 
23> in verbs +>), as if made up of the contracted syllable 36, with > Praeformative ; 
and the like in Hiph. and Hophal. But this mere mechanical way of explanation is 
not always congruous with the real nature of things. 


124 §66. VERBS AYIN DOUBLED. 


pensation ; e. g. ™p4 (from 7p); Hiph. 1ma54 (from mn>). See however 
anos}, Judg. 18: 23, amd", Job 4: 20. 

Occasionally the epenthetic i and "— are omitted; e. g. Jer. 19: 3, mom 
(from >>x). In the Paradigm G, the Imperf. of the form in question is 
presented. 

6, Several unusual forms lie at the basis here, which in part 
are more ancient and original than those of the regular verb. 
[So in Greek, in respect to verbs in -t]. 

E. g. 20" is contracted out of 250° (with din the Praeformative), which 
is the manner of the regular verb in-Arabic.* Hiph. 307 (for 22073) has, 
in the contracted stem-syllable, the shorter and more original é, (like the 
Aramaean >2pX, comp. §52, 1, and n.1); Perf. 30) for 3202; Imperf. 
Niphal 38% for 230"; comp. ups, §50.n. 2. 

4. The Accent has the peculiarity here, that it does not go 
forward upon the Afformatives which begin with a vowel, viz. 
n—,%-,"—, but remains on theultimate stem-syllable; e. g. 136- 
In respect to the other Afformatives (beginning with a conso- 
nant), the accent falls on the epenthetic i or "=, which precedes 
them; (excepting 5"-, jf-, which always claim the accent for 
themselves). 

The consequence of this last usage is, of course, to shorten preceding 
vowels of the verb; e. g. 120m, but M"Sdn (6 into wz); H2abn, but mizon, 
(first vowel goes into —, the second into short 7). 

&, Instead of Piel, Pual, and Hithp., in many verbs of this 
kind is employed the unfrequent Conjugation Poel, with its 
Passive and Reflexive, (§54, 1). 

E. g. ddi>, Pass. ddiz, Reflex. dbisnn , (from 59). Some verbs form 
Pilpel, ete. (5 54,4); as dzb3, Reflex. bibann; Passive SU3U, from >3U. 
These are all regularly declined, like Piel. 


NOTES. 


I. Notes to Kal. 

Note 1. The third pers. Perfect with O final, (like dd5 , § 43, 1) may pre- 
serve this O in other forms; as "25 from bias, Job 24: 24; 13545 from 324, 
Gen. 49: 23. 

Nore 2. The Hholem (O) of the Inf, Imper., and Imperf., (35, 35), is 





* The Hebrew Sup> comes from Syp5,§9,5. This d, moreover, shows itself in 
verbs first Guttural ; dessert in verbs x5, § 67, and 13, § 71. 

+ The gender and number endings of the Participles have the tone, asin the case of 
nouns, since they do not properly belong to the verbal flexion. 


§ 66, VERBS AYIN DOUBLED. 125 


a mutable vowel, and is written defectively, with few exceptions specially be- 
longing to the later orthography, such as 1i2> for 13>, Esth. 3: 13. 8: 11. 
Since the vowel is mutable, it goes into short 6 and % when it loses the 
tone; e.g. j> (ron), Job 38: 7; with suffix as ipa (3 prep.), Prov. 8: 27, 
Imper. "225; Imperf. with Vav consec., 3053 (vay-ya-sdbh), Judg. 11: 18; 
with suff, o3w7, Prov. 11: 3, Qeri. 

Nore 3. Examples of the form with d@ (Pattah) in the. Inf, Imper., and 
Imperf., (like 2p, up), are FW Jer. 5: 26; ds, Ps. 119: 22; “25, Is, 24: 
9; dp», Gen. 16: 4, 5. 

Examples of the Chaldaizing Imperf. are 107 together with 25; nus, 
1 K. 9: 8; 34p53 from 73p. 

Nore 4. Of the Part. an Aramaean form, OX for 508, occurs in Jer. 
30: 16, Kethibh. 

Il. Niphal. 

Norte 5. Together with the most common form of the Paradigm, which 
has Pattah in the second syllable, other forms exist, which employ (-— ) final 
through the whole Conjugation; while some others employ Hholem ; (anal- 
ogous to the three forms of the regular verb, >UP nae, >>8 »§ 43,1). Evg. 
Perf. >p3 (and also >p3), Jer. 49: 6. Inf. 025, Ps. 68: 3. Part. 0332, 1 Sam. 
15: 9. Of the form with O, nbaa, Is. 34: 4. Infi abs. tian, Is. 24: 3. Imper. 
saan, Num. 17: 10. Imperf. "25m, Jer. 48: 2. Examples of Niphal, where 
the first syllable is sharpened, are 592, Ezek. 25: 3, (from >5m); “m3 (from 
“1) Ps. 69: 4. 102: 4, (also "m3, Jer. 6: 29); mm3, (from mn). 


Ill. Hiphil and Hophal. 

Norte 6, The second syllable, instead of (—), may also have (—), spe- 
cially with Gutturals; e. g. 720, Inf. "25, Jer. 4: 11. In like manner with- 
out the Gutturals; as pm, 2 K. 28: 15, plur. 5205, 1 Sam. 5: 10. Part. dy, 
Ezek. 31: 3. 

Norte 7, The Imperf., with accent retracted, sounds as 305, Ps. 91: 4; 
>d53, Gen. 29: 10. 

‘Nore 8 Chaldaizing forms of Hiphil and Hophal, are 2955, Ex. 13: 18; 
mas}, Deut. 1: 44; Hoph. n>, Is. 24: 12; spr (in pause) for pm, Job 
19: 23. 

IV. General Remarks. 

Nore 9. Nearest related to verbs 23 (.4yin doubled) are the verbs 43, as 
the Paradigms of their forms will show. The forms of »3, however, are 
for the most part the shorter of the two; e, g. comp. 30 and Dips, 30m 
and o*pm. In some cases they appear exactly alike; e. g. in the Imperf. 
Kal and Hiphil with Vav consecutive; also in Hophal, and in the unusual 
Conjugations. On account of this intimate relation they have borrowed 
forms from each other; e. g. j297 for 57, Proy. 29: 6. 

Nore 10. Together with the contracted forms, and particularly for cer- 


126 § 67. verss 85. 


tain Conjugations and tenses, the regular forms coexist. E. g. 13, "12, 
yatta (also 52192, Deut. 3:7). Inf. 330 and 30. Imperf. j2r Amos 5: 15, 
(elsewhere jn>). Hiph. jo, Imperf. y725 (never contracted). Part. 
nvawa, Ezek. 3:15. Sometimes the full form appears to be energic, Ps. 
118: IL. 

Nore 11. In the remarks under No. 5 above, we have seen instances, 
where, in case of accession to the verb, the doubling is omitted, and also 
the full vowel, as 17753. The same finds place, however, elsewhere; e. g. 
mba3 for M22, Gen. 11: 7, (from 522, and used hortatively). So ayn for 
mats, Gen. 11: 6. Perf. Niphal, 203 for 9202, Ezek. 41:7; comp. Is. 19: 
3. Jer. 8:14. Without a Daghesh, but still with a full vowel, 125 for nIz7, 
Prov. 7: 13; and so 73), 1 Sam. 14: 36; pana, Is. 57: 5, for wana. 

Nore 12. Although the tone in these verbs is not drawn forward by the 
Afformatives, (see No. 7 above), yet, when suffix-pronouns are appended, they 
move it forward; e. g. 530, 22720, Ps. 118: 11. The vowels which precede 
the Daghesh, in such cases, must, when long, of course be shortened ; and 
in this process, Hholem of the Imperf. goes into Qibbids, (rarely into Qamets 
Hhatuph), and Tsere in Hiphil into short Hhireg (as in third plur. fem. of the 
Imperf., 52°30m, second masc. sing. in Hiph. Perf, nnmisom). Of course, 
also, hy a removal of the tone, the Praeformatives lose their full vowel. 
Examples of change by the pronoun-suffix are "220%, Ps. 49: 6; ADD, 
Job 40: 22; s23m7, Ps. 67: 2. Hiph. "22073, Ezek. 47: 2, 


(C). Feepre VERBS. (VERBS QUIESCENT). 
§ 67. 
Verbs quiescent 851; e. g. 228 (to eat). 

So far as 8 is a Guttural, and has a consonant-power, it has 
already been treated of in § 62, under verbs first Guttural. Here 
we are to consider it only as quiescent, i. e. as dropping its con- 
sonant sound, and coalescing with the vowel which precedes it. 
This happens only in a very few (and as it were worn out) 
verbs and forms, according to rules which follow: 


J. There are five verbs in Kal Imperf., which make x to 
quiesce in Hholem (6); and some others use this form together 
with the Guttural one. 


The five are 738, NAN, 528, WAN, MEN; e. g. T4N4, etc. Some others 
are like 1485 and thyx>. "The 6 6 arises out of an obscure 4d, (§ 9, 10, 2); and 
the @ itself must be a contraction of (——) or (——). The feebleness of these 
forms extends itself also to the last syllable, which usually has ( _ ) instead 
of O; or, in case of conjunctive accents and continued discourse, it takes 
(.); e. g. 15> Sanm, Ps. 9:19. On the other hand, 4aXn in Ps. 1: 6. 


§68. verns "E. 127 


(Comp. the exchange of € and 4d, § 64, 1, lett.c). When the accent is 
drawn back, also, the last syllable sometimes takes (— ), pi" Ta", Job 3: 
3, D2>N84; and sometimes (=), as in "2855 with conjunctive accents, but 
“van73 (Milra) with the distinctive ones. (Only in the book of Job, do we 
find the form “2X54 in pause). 

Nore. Very seldom, (—) stands under the Praeformative in Kal Imperf. ; 
e.g. ANN, Mic. 4: 8, out of mAXm. So always in the Inf. “aN> (for "2>), 

2. In the first pers. sing. of the Imperf., where two Alephs 
come together, the second, (i. e. the first stem-letter of the verb), 
is dropped, (§ 28, 4). 

E. g. 28 for Wax. Elsewhere & seldom falls away; although there 
are some few cases in which this happens; as 5oM for pOXM, Ps. 104: 29; 
W725 for FAVaN", Ps. 139: 20; “dim for *>1km, Jer. 2: 36. 

N. B. The Paradigm I. gives, with the feeble forms of the Imperf. Kal, 
only a synoptical view of the others. 

Note |. In the derived Conjugations, the feeble forms occur only here 
and there; e. g, Perf. Nipb. 11982, Jos, 22: 9; Hiph. >gxi1, Num. 11: 25; 
pix (1 pak Job 32: 11; M738, Jer. 46: 8; j7va, Prov. 17: 4, Imp."97, 
Is, 21: 14. [brv3, in Is. 13: 20, = 547, adds aruhen vowel (—) to ares 
after which & may quiesce]. 

Nore 2. In Piel, & sometimes falls out by contraction, (like the 4 in 
>*zpo for bpm); e. g. 9272 for 2x2, Job 35: 11, 


§ 68, 
Verbs *®. First Class, or those originally °8; e. g. 282. 

Verbs Pe Yodh (7) are divided into two classes, which differ 
both in their origin, and in their-mode of flexion. The /irst 
comprises the verbs which properly have a (1) for their first stem- 
letter; (in Arabic such are read with a v), but this is softened 
down by the usage of the Hebrews to Yodh (*), and thus begins 
a considerable number of verbs. 

The second class comprises those which in reality commence 
with a Yodh (*), as in §69. A peculiar and third class, more- 
over, is formed, partly from the first and partly from the second 
class just named, whose peculiarity is, that in certain forms they 
take a Daghesh forte after them, inserted in the second radical, 
like verbs 3£, (§ 70). 

The verb "3" presents forms accordant with those of the first two classes 
above; e. g. (1) "x7, Imperf. “x7, a Sh to be harassed, vered. (2) "x", Im- 
perf, "x", "355. 


128 § 68. verBs 5B. 


The declension of the first class named above, (analogous to 
the Arabic °5), is regulated as follows: 

1. In the Inf. construct, Imper., and Imperf., there are two 
modes of formation. About one half of these verbs have the 
feebler forms, viz. (a2) Imperf. 287, with (—) also in the second 
syllable, which may be shortened into Seg/ol, or into Sheva vo- 
cal, as the case requires; while in the first syllable the (—) is 
more fixed, inasmuch as the first radical (») quiesces init. I. g. 

Imper. 3%) out of 304, abridged by dropping the Yodh. 

Infin. naw, abridged in like manner, and provided with the fem. ending 

n=, which imparts to the form more length and stability. 


(6) The second class of these verbs constructs these forms 
with more strength, has an Imperf. A, and retains the Yodh 
radical. KE. g. 

Imper. wa; Inf. as 3", (* as consonant). 

Imperf. U9", where the Yodh radical coalesces in the Hhiregq, (§ 24, 2). 

That this last method of flexion may also be adopted by verbs of the first 
class, (which has often been overlooked and denied), may be established — 
partly from the fact that verbs "5 frequently exhibit it in Kal, while they 
resume their proper 1 in Niph., Hiph., and Hophal; and partly from the 
fact, that the corresponding Arabic verbs %® have a double method of in- 
flexion. In fact, both forms sometimes occur in the same verb; e. g. PX, 
2K. 4: 41, and ps", Ezek. 24:3; wn, 1K. 21:15; wn, Deut. 2: 24, (also 
ws", with prolongation muss, Deut. 33: 23). In the Imperf. p™, Deut. 
32: 22, and 1p", Is. 10: 16. 

In the first manner are formed ens N¥S, Dw5, Ta, S15, Imperf. 933, 
(second syllable has — by reason of the Guttural); to the second class be- 
long 925, 722, War, (in Arabic the last is "b). 

2. The original and radical Vav (1) appears continually in 
Con}. Niph., Hiph., Hoph.; and in the Perf. and Part. Niph.; 
and in all Hiph. Hholem is joined with Vav; in Hophal, Shu- 
req. In Niphal Imperf., Inf., and Imper., the Vav remains as a 
proper consonant. 

E. g. as quiescent, 24) (for 3853); awn (for awn); Awan (for 2H). 
As consonant in Niph., av, sun . Sometimes this consonant power re- 
mains in Hithp.; as 935mm; and in a few nouns also, as 724, from 73>. 

3, All the other forms, with few exceptions, (see n. 3, 4 be- 
low), are entirely regular. 


In those forms where Yodh is omitted, one may determine the nature of 


§ 68. veRBs 5». 129 


the verb in the Imperf. Kal, by the (_ ) under the Praeformatives. In Niph., 
Hiph., Hoph., the character of the verb may be recognized by the (4, 4, 4), 
before the second radical. But forms like 73%, they have in common with 
verbs j5; and Hophal takes the same form as in verbs >3and 4. 

Nore l. The Inf. Kal., of the feebler form, has very seldom a mase. 
form, like >3, Job 32: 6, 10; or a fem. ending ed like H23, Ex. 2: 4.%In 
the concurrence of a Guttural, the fem. form m= becomes N=, e. g. MP5 
(to know). The Inf. ny i is contracted into m>, 1 Sam. 4: 19, (§ 19,2)... Ex- 
amples of the regular and firmer form with a suffix, are "707 (Yosdhi), Job 
38: 4; 150", Ezra 3: 12. In the stronger form, moreover, ‘the fem. Inf. is 
rare; e. g. "pbb. 

Nore 2. The Imper. Kal has frequently the (H~) of prolongation; e. g. 
M3 (sil), 74 (come down), HA (from 355), and so %2h, 135, with tone 
on Qamets; which [perhaps] depends on the influence of the Guttural 7. 

Nore 3. The Imperf. of the form 24, takes (—) final, when a Guttural 
concurs; as 235, 79m, Jer. 138: 17. When the tone is drawn to the penult, 
the (—) of the scald syllable is of course shortened into (—), i. e. before 
monosyllabic words, and after Vav consecutive; e. g. S27 +>, Gen. 44: 
33; T35, azi53; in pause, however, these words run thus: aus4, TaN. 
Rarely i is the first (— ) here written plené ; as H2>5x, Mic. 1: 8. 

The form v9" can also drop its radical Yodh, when it comes to be pro- 
longed; 552", Is. 40: 30; 5355, Is. 65: 23. Yet seldom, and nearly doubt- 
ful, are the cases where this Yodh is dropped, after any other Praeforma- 
tives than Yodh ("). See Is. 44: 8. 

Norte 4. In some stems, the feebleness of the form reaches even the 
Perf. of Kal, inasmuch as the a gives way to é and 7; e. g. A, oH, 

Fm bs, (from t7, 32"). Examples may be found in Ps. 2:7 ty LU: 
12. iat 4:1, 8: 1. 19: 1. 26: 1. Ps. 69: 36, et al. In Syriac, the e is pre- 
dominant bere. In Hebrew, the feeble vocalization is found only in such 
forms of the Perf. as lose the full vowel under the first radical (4). 

Nore 5. In the Imperf. Niphal, in the way of exception, Yodh (+) stands 
instead of (1); as >, Gen. 8: 12, comp. Ex. 19:13. The first pers. here 
always sounds as TWA, (not aux with a Seghol), § 50, n. 4. 

Nore 6. In Piel the radical Yodh (") sometimes is dropped, after the 
Praeformative (7); and then the Praeformative takes the vowel which be- 
longed to the radical Yodh, (see § 67, n. 2). E. g. smiiazn, for smvians, 
Nah. 1: 4. 

Note 7. The Imperf. Hiphil, with accent retracted, takes a final Seghol, 
(as in Kal); e. g. 9075, Prov. 1:5; 50". In respect to such forms as re- 
tain the formative 4, like 2-277", see § 52, n. 7—In Hophal, some exam- 
ples exhibit i for 1; as >3°h for >7515, Lev. 4: 23, 28. 

Nore 8. To the verbs “Bthe verb 323 attaches itself; for the Imperf. is 

17 


130 § 69. vERBS "5 CLASS II. IIL. 


"bn, and with Vav "251, in pause 2015 Inf. const. m5; Imper. "2s pro- 
longed na? (and also 7); Hiph. 37>. Seldom, and almost only among 
the later writers and in poetry, will one find the regular forms of 725 , Im- 
perf. 252, Inf. 7>3, (Num. 22: 14, 16. Ece. 6: 8, 9); Imper. plur. n2>tt, 
Jer. 51:50. On the other hand, the Perf. Kal is always and only 925, . 
Part. 924, Inf. abs. 7153, Piel 425, Hithp. 7255, so that a Yodh as first 
radical nowhere appears. The common solution of the difficulty is, to as- 
sume an obsolete 727; although one may well suppose that in a word so 
much used, the weak letters in 72m itself might easily permit those other 
forms, after the analogy of verbs "5. Comp. moreover the feeble NB, e. g. 
in the above cited (§ 67) "b1m from bis, and "5>m from 724, Imperf. Hiph. 
mana from 738, and H2">ix from 427, 2 K. 6: 19. 


§ 69. 
Feeble Verbs 8. Second Class, properly "8; e. g. 223. 
These verbs separate themselves from verbs * essentially in 
the following particulars: 
i. In Kal, only the stronger method of construction finds 
place, in which the radical Yodh (") remains, (§ 68, 1). 


E. g. Inf. 201. The Imperf: has A; as 20%", yp"; and the Pattah here, 
when the tone is retracted, becomes Seghol ; as yp, Gen. 9: 24; “E754 
(from 9274), Gen. 2: 7. 

2, In Hiphil the Yodh radical remains, and quiesces in (-). 

E. g. 29053 (for 25055); Imperf. a"w". Yodh in a few cases resists 
quiescence and remains a consonant; as "5, Prov. 4:25. Ps. 5:9, Qeri. 

The verbs of this kind are only 247, p29, Vp, 7¥7, >>", Hiph. Sn, 
aus. 

Anomalous are certain forms of the Imperf. Hiph., where before >">» the 
Praeformatives are inserted; e. g. 9535, boda, sbndon, Is. 15: 2. 65: 14. 
Jer. 48: 31. Hos. 7: 14. Besides, there are 252", Job 24: 21; and some- 
times even in the Imperf. Kal, as 3, Ps. 138: 6, from 235. The ground 
of this anomaly consists in this, viz. that the () of the simple form looks 
like a radical letter, and is treated as belonging to the stem. [? This seems 
to be rather too superficial to be fairly charged upon the Masorites, who 
have surely shown an extensive knowledge of the language. Are not this 
and the preceding form to be put to the account of poetry, or perhaps to a 
dialectic pronunciation? Comp. the Doric, in the Greek tragedians]. 


§ 70. 
Verb "5. Third Class, or contracted Verbs *». 


To this third Class, are to be reckoned those verbs of Class 


§ 71. verBs 53. 131 


I. and Class II, whose Yodh does not quiesce in i or é, but, like 
a verb 2, assimilates itself to the next letter. 

This takes place in some verbs throughout their actual forms; e. g. 235, 
Hiph. 3°35, Hoph. 53; mx5, Imperf. mz, Hiph. mn". In some verbs, 
both these forms and also the weaker ones of the first or second class are 
found: ps, with pxs (1 K. 22: 35); “45, Imperf. -¥°55 and “4, (Is. 44: 
12. Jer. 1: 5); “w, Imperf. "Ww and “25, (1 Sam. 6: 12). 

The beginner may very easily be led to regard these as belonging to the 
“b class; he must therefore, when he does not find them under that cate- 
gory, resort in his lexicon to the words under Yodh. 

In the Paradigms K, L, the discrepant forms of the two classes are ap- 
propriately represented. The third follow 5; and besides this, they very 
seldom occur. 

ged § 
Feeble Verbs "3; ¢. g. BP. 


1. The middle stem-letter Vav (1) gives up its consonant- 
power throughout, and is swallowed up in the leading vowel of 
the form, not only in the more usual cases (§ 24, 1), where a 
Sheva precedes or follows, as #2 for 132 (be-vosh), but also 
when the Vav stands between two full vowels; as Dp for Sip 
(qa-vim), Dip for Dp (qa-vém). The root, of course, always ap- 
pears to be monosyllabic. 

2. The vowel of the contracted stem is essentially the vowel 
of the second syllable; which, nearly throughout, comprises the 
essential characteristic of the forms, (§ 66, 2). This character- 
vowel becomes extended by its union with Vav, but not immu- 
table. 

E. g. Inf. and Imper. Dip for Dip, Perf. op for nyp. That still the vowel 
is mutable, is shown by =P, Mop, "Hap, etc. Hiph. Imperf. oxp out of 
p.p7, and in the Jussive, BP. 

The verb intransitive, middle (_), sounds in Kal Perf. as 
(for m2); the middle (~) sounds as "58 (from “hx), via (for 
wha), see n. 1 below. 

3. The Praeformatives of Kal Imperf., Niph. Perf., and of 
all Hiph. and Hoph., which, before a monosyllabic stem, must 
make a simple or open syllable, obtain of course a long vowel, 
corresponding to the short one which by analogy they would 
receive, (§ 27, 2). 

E. g. D3p> for Dips; Oop for Spa; opan for pip. This Praeforma- 


132 §71. verzs 15. 


tive vowel, moreover, is of course a mutable one; and therefore it may fall 
away, i. €. go into Sheva, when the tone is moved forward; as 527)", Im- 
perf. plur. java". Only in Hophal is there an exception to the mutability 
in question; for the 4 there seems to be more, steadfast than the other sim- 
ple pure vowels. Besides, the 1 seems to have been brought backward by 
a metathesis, in order to gain a position meet for contraction; e. g. DIP on 
becomes opi, (the like is'‘not unfrequent in Hebrew), and then by con- 
traction we have Dpin. : 

4., The unusual forms of the regular verb seem to lie at the 
root of the forms here; and in fact the forms in this class of 
verbs which are built on the normal forms of the regular verb, 
are more unfrequent than the others. 

E. g. Kal Imperf. 55>> comes from Dip, (see § 66, 6); Part. pp for Dip, 
(like Pup, comp. § 49, 2. § 83, No. 1). Seldom as wins (from the normal 
wa"). The O in Niphal (D5p3) arises out of a va (1) = ua, and thus Niph- 
al represents 55p2; Niph. Imperf. pip" comes from Bip". 

5. In Perf. Niph. and Hiphil, before the Afformatives of 
first and second persons, an 4 epenthetic is inserted; and in Kal 
Imperf., before the ending 72- an epenthetic "= () 66, 4); pro- 
bably in order to soften the hardness of such forms as the nor- 
mal m2ip2, m2p4. These epenthetic syllables alvays take the 
accent, and (as usual in such cases) shorten the preceding vow- 
els. 

E. g. as to the latter: pip2, niaipy; Oopa, niasph or (- A), and also 
miapo; mvaipm. But sometimes harder Vieins occur, without the epen- 
thetics ; so ‘Kal Imperf. 72%, Ezek, 16: 35, (and in the same verse M2"35WM); 
more frequent still are the harder forms in Hiphil, e. g. m7, Ex. 20: 25; 
also “mip, Job 31: 21; 22m, Job 20: 10; once ree om, Jer. 44: a5, 
The Imper. admits no epenthetic {or —; &. g. mp, Hiph. map 

G. The tone, as in verbs »3, falls not on the Afformatives 
n=,%-, =, e. g. 42P, 2, excepting the full plural form j5p7. 
When the Afformatives are preceded by no epenthetic syllable, 
the tone is altogether normal; e. g. 122, Hoph. "335. As to 
the tone of the epenthetic i and "=, see No. 5 above. 

4%. The normal Conjugations, Piel, Pual, and Hithp., occur 
here very seldom. ‘The only case in which \ medial remains a 
consonant, is that of 72, Piel 33 (but see n. 10 below). In 
some others, the 1 goes into °; as op from 5p, 3°n from 1n, 
This last formation belongs to the later Hebraism, and is bor- 
rowed from the Aramaean. 


§ 71. vERBS 12. 133 


On the other hand; the place of Piel, ete., is occupied by 
Pilel (§ 54, 2), with its Passive and Reflexive. 

E. g. Baip from Dip; Dain, Pass. 25 from Bin; “Tenn from “Ay. 
Rarely is Pilpel (§ 54, 4) Pee here; e. g. 5252 from bio, 


NOTES. 


J. Notes to Kal. 

Nore 1. Verbs middle E and O, in which normally the Part. and the 
Perf, are of the same form, are found in such forms as ra (for mya), first 
pers. "172 (mat-ti), first plur. 2m2, third plur. sma. So midd. O, sia (for 
wha), "Mod, wwh, wia; Vik. | Part. ma, pywia, Ezek. 32: 30. 

The form of, as Part. and Perf., is very seldom written oXP, (Hos. 10: 
14), after the Arabic manner, (§9, 1). So DooNw, Ezek. 28: 24, 26, comp. 
16: 17. 

Nore 2. In the Inf. and Imper., some verbs always take 4; as N13, 350, 
“ik; most of them take 5. But even these have 4 in the Inf. abs., (like 
divp); e. g. Dp, Jer. 44: 29. Those verbs which constantly have 4 in all 
Infinitives, preserve this also in the Imperf.; e.g. Nia2. The verb win7 
(with — under the Praeform.) is altogether sut generis. 

Nore 3. In the Amper., the verbs with Afformatives keep the tone on the 
ground-form; e. g. Yaip, an. To this there are a few exceptions, as 
“Say, in Judg. 5: 12. On the. other hand, the “= of prolongation here, 
brings down the tone usually upon the ultimate; e. g. Hap, Ha. To 
this also there are a few exceptions; see in Ps. 7: 8. Jer. 3: 12. 40: 5. 

Nore 4, The shortened Imperf., employed as Jussive (§ 48, 4), has the 
form =P (very seldom written Dip7, oP>). E. g, a> (let him turn back), 
Deut. 20: 5—8; 29 5x, Ps. 74: 21; nian, 1K, 21: 10; (comp. § 27, n. 1). 
As Indicative, in poetry, we find 24, bon, Num. 24: 7. Mic. 5: 8. With 
Vav consec,, and before monosyllabic words, the tone is drawn back, and 
the O shortened; e. g. D4 (vay-ya-qdm), > Dp> {ya-qdm lakh), Job 22: 
28. In pause, the tone remains on the ultimate; e. g. mam, Gen. 11: 28, 
32, comp. 5: 5, 8. By the concurrence of a Guttural, or of a “, the last 
syllable nay have a Pattah (—); e. g. 9055, Ruth 4: 1, (from 50). 

The full plur. ending }5—, (see No. 6 above), has the tone; hence ;;h772m, 
Gen. 3: 3, 4; j;0229, Ps. 104: 7; jax", Joel 2: 4, 7, 9. 


Il. Niphal. 


Note 5. Varying forms in Niphal are: Perf. omixby, Ezek. 11: 17. 20: 
34, 41: 43. Inf. const. wasn, Is. 25: 10. Comp. Note 9 below. 


UL. Hiphil. 
Nore 6. Examples of the Perf., without the epenthetic i, are mp3, Ex. 
20: 25; mman, Num. 17: 6, ete. 


134 §71. vers 15. 


Nore 7. In the Imper., besides the usual DD, the prolonged form ‘is al- 
so employed, e. g. ma5pn. 

The shortened Imperf. sounds as DP3; e. g. 7071, Ex. 10:17. After Vav 
consec., the tone rests on the penult; as D951, yp. In concurrence with 
a Guttural or a“, the ultimate takes Pattah, as in Kal; e. g. 0™, Gen. 8: | 
13. 


IV. General Remarks. 

Nore 8. These verbs are most nearly related to verbs ¥9 (§ 66); on 
which account one in analyzing them must look carefully to their diversi- 
ties. Many forms of both verbs fully coincide; e. g. Kal Imperf. with Vav 
consec.; moreover, Pilel of 13 and Poel of 23. Hence it comes, that they 
often borrow forms from each other; e. g. Kal Perf. 12 (from 153), the same 
form from Ta, Zech. 4: 10; so ma (for my), Is. 44: 18. 

Nore 9. In common with verbs 3 also, (§ 66, 5), these verbs have, in 
Niphal and HMiphil, the Chaldee and Rabbinig» punctuation, according to 
which a short vowel followed by Daghesh forte is ptit under the Praeformatives, 
instead of a long vowel. ‘This form occurs often together with the usual 
one; e, g. Hiph. mo, Imperf. m°d> (together with mom and mo"), from 
mid; so inhi, 2 Sam, 22: 33, (together with “m>, Prov. 12: 26). Some- 
times with a modified meaning; as 12m to give rest, 192, Imperf. m2" to 
lay down, settle down ; 3725 to spend the night, to lodge,*">7, j7>2, to_be ob- 
stinate, stiff-necked. Other examples are 112", he is circumcised, Gen. 17: 26, 
27. 34: 22, (from b1a, not from 5722). Forms with a Guttural: i232, Zech. 
2:17; Hiph. 54, Lam. 1: 8; 155, Prov. 4: 21. 

Therewith may be reckoned some forms of verbs first Guttural with Da- 
ghesh implicitum, (which some would derive in a different way, or amend) ; 
as Unmi for Unni (from wn), Job 31:5; o951, osms, 1 Sam. 15: 19. 25: 
14, from wid, BAD. 

Note 10. The verbs whose middle stem-letter (1) remains a consonant, 
are, in respect to this consonant, entirely regular. E. g. "5m, Imperf. “75; 
o5, Imperf. 2357; and regular, as to the 4, are all of those whose third radi- 
cal is 5, and the second one 4; as mx, Piel Hix, Mp, ete. 


§ 72. 
Feeble Verbs "5, ¢. g. 3. 

—, These verbs agree, in regard to their structure, altogether 
with the foregoing ones, and the Yodh here is subjected to all 
the changes of the Vav there. 

E. g. mw (for m8), Inf. mw, Inf. abs. miw (for n°), Imper. mv, Im- 
perf. nw>, Jussive mus, with Vav consec, myer. 

In Kal Perf, moreover, several verbs have another series of forms, which 


§'72. verss "9. 135 


are like to a Hiphil which has suffered the aphaeresis of the 4; e.g. 
sina = nina, Dan. 9: 2, together with 22 Ps. 139: 2; mins; Job 33: 
13, and also M39 Lam. 3: 58. Besides these, the full Hiphil also occurs ; 
e. g. 37, brian, Inf. j7373 (together with 3°32); Imper. 73m (also 53) ; 
Part. }9272 (also 13) and so 272 (also 35); Sw, (also nw); y>x70, Perf. 
yx. Besides, there are Passives ; as Hoph. Imperf. "ws" (from “7v5); muss 
(from mw) . 

2. The Hiphil-forms brought to view may easily be traced 


to verbs 3, and may in part belong to them. The same is true 
also of Niphal, Pilel, and Hithpalel. 

E, g. 932; Pil. 32525 Hith, j)20n, (all as if from }13). In every respect 
are these verbs nearly related to those \S. Hence several of them occur 
promiscuously, and with the same meaning, both as 13 and “3, as }"> to 
lodge, also 53>; 0° to place or set, also Div; Imperf. o*w7, also Div. In 
others, one form is more dominant; as >*5 to rejoice, 543 once in Prov. 23: 
24. Only a very few appear to be exclusively "3, viz. nw, 24, ww. 

Remarks. The old grammarians allow of no such class of verbs as these, 
but ranged them all under 13; which in part is correct. In the later Ara- 
hic, there occurs the like abridgment of the Hiphil, (Conj. IV), in respect 
to verbs 1. But on the other hand, both the Arabic and the Ethiopic 
have verbs actually "3; and the Hebrew clearly has some with a Yodh con- 
sonant; e.g. I5N, 522. It is certain that there is a fluctuation here, and 
a mutual approximation of stems so nearly related. The Par. (N) is con- 
nected with the verbs 15 (Par. M); so that the parallelism between them is 
quite plain. All which is not developed in the former Paradigm, coincides 
with the forms in the latter. 

Nore 1. Examples of the Inf. abs. are 345, Judg. 11: 25; nt, Is. 22: 7; 
also, in Jer. 50: 34, we have a". 

Nore 2. The shortened Imperf. isas 23"; with tone retracted, as i> 255, 
Judg. 6: 31. So with Vav consec., as Dyes, 5251. é. 

Nore 3. As Part. act. Kal, 7> is once found, in Neh. 13: 21. Part. pas- 
sive, b°Y, or DA (var. lect.), 2 Sam. 13: 32. 

Nore 4. Verbs 8 hold fast the consonant power of &, at all times, and 
are irregular only in the manner described in §63. Still, the weakness of 
the & in the Perf. of the frequent verb bNw, occasions the weakening of its 
normal (—) into (—), and in a closed syllable into (— or —), when the tone 
is thrown off, and no full vowel precedes it; (altogether in the manner of 
verbs "5, §68. n. 4). E. g. with suff. FPN, Gen. 32: 18 ; APNG, Ps. 137: 
3; second pers. plur. D724, 1 Sam. 12: 13. 25: 5; first sing. with ‘the suff. 
er Judg. 13: 6. 1 Sam. 1: 20, also in Hiph. 1 Sam. 1: 28. Comp. § 
44, n.2. Some examples, where & has given up its consonant-power, i. e. 
become quiescent, are 1582, VN27 (from PX2) for yR27, Ecc. 12: 5. 


136 § 73. verps &>. 


§ 73. 
Feeble Verbs in 85; e. g. 8¥2. 

The 8 appears in these verbs partly as a very slender Guttu- 
ral, scarcely audible, and partly as a Quiescent, in accordance 
with the following rules: 

f. In the forms which end with the third stem-letter, the 
last syllable has always the normal vowels; with the exception 
that Pattah, when it comes to stand before the x, goes of course 
into the corresponding long vowel, i. e. Qamets. 

This extension of the Pattah into Qamets takes place in Kal Perf., Imperf., 
Imper.; in the Perf. of Niphal, Priel, Pual, and Hophal, (§ 23, 1); but still, 
as this is a kind of accidental prolongation, the long vowel (—) is mutable, 
(§ 25, 2. note); and so it may fall away by declension; e. g. N¥2", plur. 
INS). 

N. B. The Kal Imperf. and the Imper. have a final (—), in accordance with 
the laws of third Gutturals, § 64, 1. 

2. Also before the Afformatives which begin with 4 or 3, 
the 8 becomes quiescent in various ways: viz. 

(1) In Perf. Kal, in (=); as mx. (2) In the Perfect of the other Conju- 


gations, it takes (—) before it; e. g. HNS22; but, (3) In the Imper, and Imperf. 
of the same, it takes (—); e. g. Kal Imper. 42x72; Imperf. m2Nxx7~2m; and 
so of the rest. 

The ground of (—) and (—) in these Conjugations has its basis in the re- 
semblance of these verbs to those 4, (§ 74, 2), and their approximation to 
them. 

Before the suffixes 4.,03., )3., the remains a Guttural, and takes 
under it the vowel (=); e. g. ANwoN, Cant. 8: 1; ANISM, Ezek. 28: 13, 
(Comp. § 64, 2. note). The ground of this punctuation is, that those suf- 
fixes require a vocal Sheva before them, while they usually take the tone 
upon themselves. 

8, Before the Aflormatives which begin with a vowel, the & 


is a consonant, and the form is normal. (See in full, Par. O). 


NOTES. 

Nore 1. Verbs middle (Si retain this even in the other persons of the 
Perfect ; e. g. 822, smx22. For the third fem. Perf., instead of the normal 
form (ANY), the Aramaean is sometimes employed. e. g. mop for MNP, 
Is. 7: 14. Gen, 83: 11, (like to nbyp, § 44. n. 4). Ws 

Nore 2. In the Inf. a fem. form is sometimes employed, as mX>2, Ley. 
12: 4, for mad ‘ 


§74. vers 54>. 137 


Nore 3. The fem. Part. is usually contracted; e. g. O82, seldom as 
mxyia, Cant. 8: 10; so mein (written defective for MRx17), from Nx¥>, Deut. 
28: 57. In the form Doxvh, 1 Sam. 14: 33, and ox73, Neh. 6: 8, the vowel 
is drawn back after the manner of the Syriac. 

Nore 4. Aleph sometimes falls out, when quiescent; e. g. "M372, Num. 
Til; sm72 , Job 32:18 ; omau:, Lev. 11: 43; “umn (for som, Jer. 32:35). 

See more respecting these Verbs, in §74. No. VI. 


674, 
Feeble verbs 425 e.g. 23. 


1, These verbs, (like verbs "5, § 68, §69), comprise under 
one name two classes of the irregular verbs, viz. those of *> and 
4D; which in Arabic.and Ethiopic are more plainly separated. 
Instead of the original = and‘, in all the forms which end with 
the third radical, a ™ appears in their place as the representa- 
tive of the vowel to be sounded, (§ 25, 5. note). Hence they 
are named (merely from their appearance) >. 


E. g. m3 for 723, MY for 583. But letit be noted, that by far the great- 
er part of these verbs are >; the verbs 4S appéar in only a few forms. 
The separation is therefore less distinct than that of 15 and 75. 

A real §> verb is 7>u3, for from this we have “mio, and a Part. sbuj, and 

also a derivate noun M3>Y. Still the Imperf. has ">u- (with Yodh third 
radical). In 3p to answer, (Arab. "3>), and 22 to suffer, (Arab. 15>), two 
verbs essentially different appear ; (see Lex. sub m32). The Syrians go 
still further in amalgamating these forms, inasmuch as they commingle Xd 
and 4, and the latter includes both %> and 4D. 
_ Entirely different are the verbs whose final letter is consonant (i. e. 5 
He Mappiq); e. g. 23. These verbs are treated simply as third Gutturals. 
In the meantime, there appears to be some feeble verbs, whose 5 final has 
arisen from ™ consonant, which gives up its consonant-power; e. g. MID, 
(Arab. mn>). In this way it comes about, that feeble verbs > appear 
sometimes as kindred with verbs >, the medium of transition being verbs 
m>;e. g. NUP and np, to be rigid ; Hn — me to be open. 

The grammatical structure of these verbs (see Par. P) rests 
on the following basis: 

4. Instead of the original Yodh or Vav radical, there appears 
in all cases where this would appear at the end of a word, a 
m vicarious, which better represents the vowel to be sounded 
there. This vowel, moreover, is, for every form and Conjuga- 
tion, the same. . 

18 


138 §74. verBs 49. 


E. g. =, in all the Perfects; as m3, 9239, nbs, ete. 
n—,inall the Imperfects and Participles ; e. g. 723", 723, ete. 
n—, in all the Imperatives; as 25, 5>3, ete. 
n-, in the Inf. absolute, (excepting Hiph. and Hoph.) ; as 
nbs, ete. 


Only the Part. pass. Kal is excepted, where Yodh appears at 
the end of the word; e. g. ">; and thus with some of the deri- 
vates, (§ 84, V.). 

The Inf. const. always has the fem. ending n; as nis, Piel 
mids, ete. 

The explanation of these forms may now be subjoined: 


(a) In Kal Perf., nba stands for nds , agreeably to § 24, 2.c¢; and the same 
in Niphal and Hophal. (b) In Piel and Hithp., the forms with final A are 
the basis, (like wp, >vpnit, § 51. n. 1); and also in Hiphil, the form >upn, 
(like the Arab. agtala, §52, 1). (c) The Imperf. Kal, ma", is from an Im- 
perf. 4, i.e. "34, (§ 24, 2. note); and from this comes the plur. form nna4 : 
(see note 4 below). The same applies to the other Conjugations, where, 
even in the regular verb, kindred forms having (—) develope themselves, (§ 
50. n. 2. § 53. note). ; 

The (—) of the Imper. has its ground in this, viz., that the shorter form 
here throws more of the tone on the ultimate, which acquires more stabili- 
ty by the (—). (See and comp. the const. state of nouns in F—, § 87, 2. c). 

The Hholem of the Inf. abs. is used in all the Conjugations, which admit 
a separate form for it. 


2, Before the Afformatives which begin with a 7% or 3, the 
original » comes in, but never as a consonant. The Pattah 
which precedes it would appropriately form the diphthong ai; 
butin the Perfect, this concurrence makes (*-) in Kal, and (=) 
in the other Conjugations; while in the Imper. and Imperf. it 
goes into ("=), as less full and distinct. 

E. g. in Piel, out of the old form mba (= m>wp) comes mba; which 
sometimes is further narrowed into m>s. In the Imperf. we have (instead 
of a form as 43>upM) the form nebom . In all the Passives, the ("—) here is 
held fast; but in active and derived Conjugations, and in the Reflexives, the 
forms ("—) and ("—) are interchangeably used ; (see Notes 8 and 12), Ar- 
ranged they stand thus: 

"—, in Kal Perf.; as ma. 


"=, "~, in other Actives and Reflexives ; e. g.5"bs and mba, ete. 


§74. vers 7. 139 


*., in Perf. passives throughout. 

"—, in Imper. and Imperf. always; as "2925; 42">3n, ete. 

The diphthongal forms are preserved throughout in the Arabic and Ethi- 
opic, and contracted only in the popular dialect. In Chaldee and Syriac, 
the contracted forms are predominant; yet the Syriac has also, in Kal, 
such forms as mada: and so the Chaldee, together with mba $ 

3. Before the Afformatives beginning with vowels, ("=, '-, 
“~), Yodh with its preceding vowel both fall away. 

E. g. 953 for 1953; "bam for bam; and so mdi, ons. But in the full 
form, and specially in Pause, the Yodh is preserved ; e. g. ana ; see below, 
n. 4. 11. 

In like manner, Yodh with the preceding vowel, falls out, 
when a suffix is appended ; e. g. 428, (note 18). 

4, The Yodh or third radical also falls away in the fem. of 
the third sing. Perf, inasmuch as M= is appended as a fem. end- 
ing; e.g. 723. Such was the older form; but it has now be- 
come rare (Note 1), for there has been added to it another in- 
dex of the fem., i. e. 5, so that the ordinary form now is 4723; 
and so it is, in all the Conjugations. 

E. g. The older form in Hiphil was m>37, now it is Mn>34, and in pause 
nnbin. See like cases in § 69. note, § 89, 3. t 

5, Very conspicuous here is the abridged Imperfect, which 
occurs in all the Conjugations, and arises from casting away 
the ending 5,; which also occasions some other changes in the 
form; (see in Notes 3, 7, 9,14). In like manner, in some Con- 
jugations, is the shortened Imper. formed, by casting away the 
n— "(see Note 10, 15). 


NOTES. 
I. Notes to Kal. 


Nore 1. The older and more simple form of the third fem. sing. 923, 
(made from m7>3, comp. verbs Nd, §73. n. 1), is nearly expelled from com- 
mon usage, (see above in No.4). An example of the old form is in nv, 
Lev. 25: 21. The like in Hiph. and Hoph.; e. g. nx74, Lev. 26: 34; mban, 
Jer. 13: 19. But in connection with suffixes, the old ending is everywhere 
still preserved, (see n. 18 below). 

Nore 2. The Inf. abs. is also written as iN3, Gen. 26: 28. The Inf. const. 
seldom occurs in the form vz, Gen. 50: 20; M84, Gen. 48: 11. Also un- 
usual is a fem. Inf. form, M589, Ezek. 28: 17, after the manner of moup, § 
45, 2. lett. b. 


140 §74. verss md. 


Nore 3. The shortening of the Imperf. (see No. 5 above) occasions in Kal 
the following changes: 

(a) Most frequently the first stem-letter takes a helping-Seghol, or, in case 
of a Guttural, a helping-Paltah, (§ 28,4). Thus dah for >a" , So 2545 also 
as Sw" for Sw. 

(b) In consequence of this, the short Hhireq of the Praeform. sometimes 
goes into (—), and this, because it now stands in an open syllable; e. g.877 
(from M85); 72m (from 73). 

(c) In some cases, wea in those designated in § 28, 4, the helping- 
vowel is rejected ; e. g. BW, Fa; Hes. Sometimes both forms occur 
in the same verb; e. g. NS aa RT, the last with Pattah because of the >. 

(d) Examples of ver ora “> and Jirst Guttural (§ 57) are thus: w25 from 
mwy; jou) from 22. Sometimes the Guttural does not affect the preceding 
vowel, as m1", jm, 37 with Dag. lene in the second radical, Job 3: 6, 

(e) The verbs 577 to be, and 75 to live, whose rude abbreviated forms 
would be 47° and “mm, change this into "71 and *r4, inasmuch as the sec- 
ond Yodh draws to itself the vowel a, and flows into it, thus making it long 
i. (Comp. the derivates "32 for "33, "22 for 123, etc. ; § 83. No. V.) From 
min to be, we have once sat for 17, Ece. at: 3, 

"After Vav consec. full forms saithout apocope sometimes occur ; specially 
in the first ie and in the salt books, 5. g. peitiae (some twenty 

Nore 4, The original Yodh scessiinss remains even before the vowel- 
Afformatives, (see No.3 above), specially in and before Pause ; before the 
full plur. ending j;—; or where particular emphasis rests upon the word. 
E. g. 0m, Deut 32: 37; Imperf. aq, Deut 8: 13; more frequently as 
poms, Ps. 78: 44; Sibek mya, Is, 21: 12, (Comp. n. 11 below.) 

Note 5. The Part. active constructs a second form, in which the Yodh is 
retained ; e. g. M>Dix, Prov. 31: 27; m=4b, Ps. 128: 3; plur. nitrk, Is. 41: 
23. The Part. passive sometimes omits its Yodh final ; as ivy, Job 41: 25; 
iz, Job 15: 22. 

Nore 6. Seldom are the forms written defective ; n° (for nm) 2 Sam. 
15: 83; nwSm, Job 5: 12; and the peculiar H2N7n, Mic. ”: 10. 


Il. Niphal. 


Note 7. The apocope of the end-syllable of the Imperf. here, usnally oc- 
casions no further change; e. g. 535 out of M232. In verbs second Guttural, 
however, the Qamets may become a Pattah ; e. g. m2" (for man); Ps. 109: 
13. The like in Piel; as “3m (out of misn), Ps. 141: 8. In Hithp. sann 
(out of HpINM), Prov. 22, 24, ' 


Ill. Piel, Pual, and Hithpael. 
Nore 8. In the Perf. Piel, the majority of cases take ("—) instead of (—); 


§74. verss >. 141 


e. g. nwa, "MP, (which has therefore been put in the Paradigm). Before 
Suffixes, ("—) is always preferred; e. g. 520527, Ps. 44:20. On the contra- 
ry, Pual always takes (*—). 

Nore 9. After apocope, the Imperf. loses the Daghesh forte in the second 
stem-letter, (comp. §20, 3). Hence 1s; Hithp. Danes, Gen. 9:21. Sel- 
dom is the Pattah in these cases prolonged into (—); as "N75, 1 Sam. 21: 
14; inn, Ps. 45: 12. (Comp. n. 7). : 

Nore 10. In Piel and Hithp. the Imper. with apocope occurs ; e. g. 53 (for 
ne), Dan. 1: 12; Sanh feign thyself sick, (for Hbmnn), 2 Sam. 13: 5. 

Nore 11. A few cases there are of Yodh retained, which elsewhere are 
not to be found; e. g. Imperf. "277aIm, Is. 40: 25; vanro2", Ex. 15: 15. 


IV. Hiphil and Hophal. 

Nore 12. In the Perf. of Hiphil, the two forms, m>335 and m*33n are 
about equally employed; but before suffixes, the last is preferred as being 
the shorter. In Hophal we find only (*—). 

Nore 13. In the Inf. abs. of Hiphil, 1234, the (—) is altogether normal, 
(like 52h); but in accordance with this we find an Inf. Hophal, n7pn, 
Ley. 19: 20. Of the verb 735 we find three forms of the Inf. all in use, 
viz. a9 (adverbial, much), 729m for the Inf. pleonastically employed, 
and mi277 for the Inf. construct. (Comp. Gen. 41; 49. 22: 17. Deut 28: 63.) 

Nore 14. The abridged Imperf. is made in two ways; (a) Withouta help- 
ing-vowel; as 79", Is. 41: 2; m9, Gen. 9: 27; and so pysi. With a help- 
ing-vowel ; gb (for baa), as 5954, 2Kings 18: 11; "BS, Ps. 105 24. 
Examples Nak Gangtts are >3™4, Num. 23: 2; ; Rh, etc.; which can be 
distinguished from some of Kal forms in no way but by the sense. 

Nore 15. The Imper. apoc. has constantly the helping-vowel (—) or (—); 

g. 397 for 295, asin 275, Ps.51:4; 927 for 99 — nen. Deut. 9: 14; 
for nbsn Tx 33: 12. 

Nore 16. "The Imperf. retains the Yodh here only in 973m, from ms, 

Job 19:2. 


V. General Remarks. 


Nore 17. In Aramaean, where, as already mentioned, the verbs &> and 
> flow into each other, both of them terminate the Imperf. and the Part. 
of all the Conjugations, without any diversity, in (R—) or ("—). It is an im- 
itation of this, when, in the Heb., specially in the later writers and in the 
poets, forms of the Inf., the Imper., and the Imperf. terminate in (—), less 
often in (N—) and("—). E. g. Inf. m5 to be, Ezek. 21: 15; m2, Ex, 22: 22; 
map, Lev. 19: 20; Imper. sin, Job 37: 6; Imperf. neneeb, Jer. 17: 17; 
Nan > (for MaNm >x), Prov. 1: 10; nigone bs, 2 Sam. 13: 12.* 


* In the instances cited, the forms with (—) have a Jussive sense, and might be ex- 
plained by their nature which is kindred with the Imper. (—). But this does not ap- 


142 §74. verss 4. 


The Yodh itself, (after the Syrian fashion), is sometimes found at the end 
of a verb; e. g. mt, Is. 53: 10; "211, Jer. 3: 6; and in conformity with 
this, the plur. "0755, Josh. 14: 8. 

Nore 18. Three verbs make a Pilel, or its Reflexive, (§ 54, 2), and in 
such a way that the third radical becomes 4, and the fourth stem-letter a 5, 
e. g. 382 (from 5X2), contracted M3N2. So Part. ovimv, Gen. 21: 16; in 
particular now, Pil. minw, Reflex. minmwn, (second pers. m— and n*—); 
Imperf. Hy4Mw", apoc. snmNw) (for IMM, and after the analogy of “M5 for 
wy. 

Nore 19. Before Suffixes, the 5 at the end with the vowel next preceding, 
falls away ; e.g. "22, 522, Iperf. 4295, 34225; Hiph. Fen. It is but 
seldom, that (—) or (=) is here exchanged for (* = )3 &. g. Was@a", Ps. 140: 
10; "Dn, 1 K. 20:35. In the third sing. fem., the old form mba (see No, 
4 above), with (—) final shortened, returns before suffixes; as also in the 
regular verb; e. g. "M32 (for sm>2), Zech. 5:4. In Pause, as in nw, 
Job 33: 4. 


VI. Kindred nature of &> and 4 

The near relationship of the verbs 8> and 4, (which come together in 
Aramaean), is followed by the natural consequence, that these verbs not 
unfrequently borrow each others forms; in particular is this the case, in the 
later writers and in poetry. ; 

Nore 21. These resemblances may be thus classified: (a) The vowels of 
mb, are assumed by XD; e. g. Perf. "MN>b>D, Ps. 119: 101; Part. svn, Ecc. 
9: 18. 8:12. Piel Perf. x2, Jer. 51: 34; sox, 2 K. 2: 21; Imperf. 
Nan, Job 39: 24. Miph. Perf. nn&>p3 (like m252), 2 Sam. 1: 26. Hiph. 
nnkann, Josh, 6: 17. 

b ) The final 5 of verbs 4 is put in the place of 8 in verbs 8); e. g. mp4 

(for 854), Ps. 60: 40. Miph. nant, 1 K. 22: 25. Piel Imperf. nbn, Job 
8: 21. 
(c) Another class are those which entirely conform to 4>, in both re- 
spects; as nox (for MNax), Ruth 2:9; > (for 4x32), Ezek. 28: 16, Inf 
ium to sin, Gen. 20: 6; Imperf. HEIN, Job 5: 18; Part. fem. xz5, Ecc. 
10:5. Part. pass. “Twa, Ps, 32: 1. Niph. mnp 3, Jer. 51:9. Hithp. mb2n5, 
1Sam. 10:6. Inf. miainn, 1 Sam. 10: 13. 

Nore 22. On the contrary, some verbs 4> follow the analogy of X>. 
(a) In respect to the consonants; as xywi, Lam. 4:1; x70, 2 K. 25: 29; 
Imperf. x5r°1, 2 Chron. 16: 12. (b) In respect to vowels; mb>m, 1 K. 17: 
14, (c) In respect to both; e. g. paxdm, 2 Sam, 21: 12. 





ply to other examples; and moreover the reading, in most cases, oscillates between 
(—) and (—). See, moreover, Gen. 26: 29. Ley. 18: 7. Josh. 7:9. 9: 24. Dan. 1:13. 
Ezek. 5: 12. 


§ 75. VERBS DOUBLY IRREGULAR. 143 


§ 75, 
Verbs doubly irregular. 


By these we mean such verbs as have two stem-letters in 
them, such as occasion the anomalies already explained above, 
without any reference, however, to the Guttural verbs. No new 
changes here take place. Besides this, use only can teach, 
whether in the cases where a double anomaly might exist, both 
of the anomalies, or only one, or neither, actually have place. 


E. g. ‘72 has an Imperf. sa% (Nah. 3: 7), and 335 (Gen. 31: 40), after the 
analogy of verbs 32; Hiph. 325 (like 2); but Imperf. Hophal 73", like 7 
again. 

Examples of doubly anomalous verbs, and of the more difficult forms, 
are the following: 

(a) Verbs 3D and &>; (comp. § 65 and § 73); e. g. x2, thence Imper. Xv, 
Inf. const. nxv (for XS), also nNv; Imperf. n2wM (for mXwn), Ruth 1: 
14. 

(b) Verbs j8 and ¥> (comp. § 66 and § 74); e. g. nw3, M3, Kal Imperf. 
MB", apoc. B23, so 155 (from 72), and m5. Hiph, Perf. 527, Imperf. 535, 
apoc. 32, 424, and so 154; Imper. M2, apoc. 77, Inf. nian, Part. np2. 

(c) Verbs 85 and > (comp. § 67 and § 74); as mmx’, ODN, Imperf. npx*, 
plur. 3X"; Xt, Deut. 33: 21, for mmx; Imperf. apoc. mxz) for mes, Is. 
41: 25; Imper. *"mX for 4mxX, MN (see § 23, 2, n. 2. § 74, n. 4); Hiph, Im- 
per. "nn for sox, Is. 21: 14. Imperf. apoc. 5x55, 1 Sam. 14: 24, from 
TPN. 

(d) Verbs "5 and &>; (comp. § 68. § 69. § 73). E. g. xx", Imper, XY, 
Inf. m&x, Hiph. S°s5n. 

(e) Verbs “B and >; (comp. § 68. § 69. §74). E. g. n> (prop. %5) and 
m5, 5E5, (verbs "B); e. g. Inf. 45, minn; Imper. 374; Imperf. § p15 with 
suff. 0772, Num. 21: 30, 5555 for 3575. Hiph. asin, An; Inf. nisin; Im- 
perf. M75", apoc. "i"4. 

(f) Verbs %3 and 8>, in particular iz. Perf. 8B, HNB, (once 423 for 
ka, 1 Sam. 25: 8); Hiph. 8°23, N35 and HX; Imperf. "aN for S38, 
Mic. 1: 15; Imper. "35 = 8°30, Ruth 3: 15; “and so "25 == "35, from NAD. 

(g) The verb "=n (to live) deserves notice, since it is treated as a verb 33, 
and so has "Mm in the Perf., Gen. 3: 22. It occurs not, in Hebrew, out of 
this form. Frequent is the other kindred form, viz. 55m. 


§ 76. 
The relation of irregular verbs to each other. 


Irregular verbs of different classes, e. g. of 5 and "5, of 8> and 


144 § 76. MUTUAL RELATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


M>, of 13 and 23, stand often in very close connection; which is 
manifest by the same or a very similar meaning, as well as in 
the like inflections, in forms common to both, and in mutual 
exchanges. This mutual relation rests, in the main, on the es- 
sential likeness of the two stem-consonants which have the firmer 
and harder sound, to which the common meaning of both at- 
taches, (radix bilitera, § 30, 2); so that the third feeble radical 
does not enter into the account. 

Thus 23, 71%, 827, all mean to thrust or crush; and 152, 72, 573, 
mean to fly. 

In this way are related, with respect to form and meaning, (1) Verbs 13 
and 23, (in which the first and last letters are the essential ones), such as 
sa and 2° to become poor ; 1a and Wr2 to touch ; 533 and 773 to fly. 

(2) Verbs “5 and 45, (in which the two last letters are the essential ones), 
are related to each other, and to the foregoing class. 'To each other; as 
ax7 and 23, to place, fix; YP and Wp (ya-qosh), to catch birds with nets. 
To the former class; as 310 and 105, to be good ; 302 and 31D, to anoint ; 
“an and “35 »* to fear ; MB) and m5, to blow or puff’; V2 and 755, to scatter. 
More seldom do verbs 85 belong here; as neN and Dw, to be destroyed ; 
wax and ws, to thresh, etc. P 

(3) Verbs m> and 8}, (in which the first two letters are the essential 
ones), stand partly related to each other, and partly to the preceding classes. 
To each other; as 823 and 25, to crush; NIP and Hp, to meet. To the 
preceding classes; as M¥2 and 7272, to suck out; MM3 and 55, to thrust, 
etc. 


See 
Defective Verbs. 

In many cases, where two related irregular verbs both occur, 
and are of the same meaning, both are defective, i. e. not used 
in all their forms. Inasmuch as, for the most part, the one has 
not the tenses and forms which are presented by the other, they 
mutually aid each other in making out a complete verb. 

Thus in Greek; Zyoucs, Aor. 749or, Fut. &levoouar; in Latin, fero, tuli, 
latum, ferre. But in Hebrew there is this difference, viz. that the verbs 
here, of this kind, are almost universally related in form; as in Greek, 
Bauiva, §3yv—from Ba-o. 





* It deserves remark here, that verbs »5, which have arisen out of sy, in accord- 
ance with their origin, form the second syllable predominantly with O. See, besides 
the examples above, tp and vp» , to hunt fowls; b:> and bbs , to be able. 


§ 77. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 145 


A synopsis of the most common anomalous verbs employed 
in this way, may be here subjoined : 

wis, to be ashamed. Hiph. 8735, also win (from a4), specially with 
an intransitive meaning. 

aio, to be good. Perf. 210, Imperf. 29% (from 325). Inf. 350, Hiph. 
DET. 

a2, to fear, Imperf. “155 (from “55). 

sx> and 3%), to place, fir, neither of them used in Kal. Niph. 322; 
Hiphil and Hoph, 3°35 and 235; Hithp. 22505. 

V22, to dash in pieces, smash, Imperf. 7722 (from 7755); Imper. 7358; Niph- 
al yi52; Piel j53 (from j52); Pilel yxi5 (from 5); Reflexive yxipnn; 
Hiph. y"57. Besides these, ypxp, Job 16: 12. 

“ax and "x", to be narrow, strait. Thence “boz, I am in a strait, (from 
“2%); Imperf. ss> (from “S5), also "851; Hiph. "xq, "sm. The kindred 
“Ax is transitive: to press upon, besiege. 

mm, to drink, used in Kal; in Hiph. Hpwn, to give drink, from Hpw. 

In respect to 927, to go, see above, § 68, n. 8. 

Nore 1. Like to these cases are those, where the different conjugations 
of a verb, having the same meaning, mutually borrow and lend the tenses. 
E. g. >5> in Kal, to be able, Imperf. in Hoph., 525", to compensate for the 
want of an Imperf. in Kal.—0" he added ; Hiph. Inf. 57>; Imperf. 570%, 
to compensate for the want of these tenses in Kal.—w:2, Perf. Niph. wa, 
on account of the faiture of a Perf. in Kal; but Imperf: Kal, ta> ; Imper. 
Wa; Inf. muh, etc. 

Nore 2. The older grammarians often speak of formae miztae, in which, 
they say, are united the tenses and genders of different Conjugations. 
With correct grammatical views, most of these vanish, (for example, M727", 
§ 47, n. 3). Some others appear to be misconceptions and errors, e. g. 
qni22, thy formation, Ezek. 16: 31, where the plur. suff. is appended to the 
ending Mi-, which one was accustomed to regard as plural. Others re- 
solve themselves into incorrect readings of the text. 


CHAPTER ITI. 


OF THE NOUN. 
§ 78. 
General View. 


1, Itis important above all things, in treating of the struc- 
ture of the Noun, to take a close view of its relation to the verb. 
19 


146 §'78. GENERAL VIEW OF THE NOUN. 


When we present the verbal form (§ 30, 1), i. e. the third pers. 
sing. of the Perf. as the Ground or Stem-form, it becomes easy 
to derive most of the nouns from this; and even such nouns as 
are primitives, or derived from other nouns, accommodate them- 
selves to the form and analogy of verbals. The doctrine in re- 
spect to gender, moreover, belongs to this subject, (}'79, comp. 
§ 92). 

The Ansective, in respect to form, attaches itself to the noun; although 
forms of abstract meaning occur, as adjectives, only in a metaphorical way, 
(§ 82, n. 1). 

2. An ordinary inflection of the noun, by cases, does not 
exist in Hebrew. Scarcely have any remains been discovered 
of case-endings which have gone into desuetude, (§ 88). The 
case-relation of a noun is to be known, either by the place of 
the noun in a sentence, or else it is marked by prepositions. 
The form of the noun is not changed thereby; and this matter, 
therefore, belongs to Syntax, rather than to the present category, 
(§ 115). On the other hand, the annexation of endings which 
mark the Plural, Dual, and Feminine Gender, the pronominal 
Suffixes, and the sequency of a Genitive case, occasion various 
changes in the forms of nouns; and to these the flexion or de- 
clension of nouns in Hebrew limits itself. For the comparative 
and superlative degrees of adjectives, no special forms exist in 
Hebrew, and they must therefore be expressed by syntactical 
arrangement, (§ 117). 


§ 79. 
Of Gender. 


1, The Hebrew language knows, like all the Semitic dia- 
lects, merely a ¢vo-fold gender; a MascULINE and a FEMININE. 
Inanimate physical objects and abstracts, which other stem-lan- 
guages mark by the neuter, are here regarded as mase. or fem. ; 
but mostly as being of the latter; (see § 105,‘2—4). 

2. The masculine gender, as the predominant and more im- 
portant one, has no special mark of distinction. 

The original ending of the feminine gender of nouns, was r=, 
as developed in the Perf. of verbs, in the third pers. sing. femi- 
nine, ($44, 1). But when a noun is followed by no Genitive, 
this ending is abridged, either by substituting its vowel merely, 


§'79. oF GENDER. 147 


when prolonged, i. e. "= (instead of m=), or by exchanging m= 
for the shorter toneless "=. The original fem. r= is scarcely 
employed, except when the noun is followed by a Genitive, or 
by a pronoun-sufiz. Apart from this predicament, (see on the 
nature of it, § 87, 2, b. § 89, 4), the designation of the fem. gen- 
der is effected in the following ways: 

(a) Most frequently of all, by "= with the tone; e. g. 01 
horse, fem. 55> mare. > 

(6) By a toneless mz, after a Guttural n=, which remain wn- 
changed before a Genitive.t | When the mase. ends in a vowel, 
the fem. is made simply by appending the "— without its vowel.’ 


E. g. (a) Sup, fem. rb; sti, fem. meta. The end of the word, in 
the case of such feminines, shapes itself after the manner of Segholate nouns, 
(§ 92,2). (b) "axa 4 Moabite (man), fem. P>aNiv2; NVM sinner, fem. ARUN 
sinfulness, (abstract). The vowel-changes brought about by these endings, 
are exhibited in § 92. Feminines that have no distinctive sign of gender, 
are treated of in § 105, 1. 3. 4. 

Nore 1. The fem. ending m—(m-), is in general of much less frequent 
occurrence than the H—, and for the most part occurs along with this. 
Somewhat more frequent is it in Participles and Infinitives; e. g. n>%p 
more frequently than M>up; M75 more frequently than H3>. Besides, the 
endings M—, m—, occur of course when a Gen. follows. 

Nore 2, Unusuat rem. Enpines. (a) M—, [without a Guttural]; as 
mp1 emerald, Ezek. 28: 13; mxp pelican, Is. 34:11; mew, 2 K.9:17; and 
so, freqnently in Phenician names, and in those of the neighbouring tribes, 
as MDW, M2, Elath. 

(b) m—, almost exclusively poetical ; e. g. M713, Ps. 60: 13; nem, Ps. 16: 
6; sometimes in prose, as M712 (md-h’rdth). 

(c) =, which is Aramaean orthography, written for 5—, specially in the 
later books ; e. g. 828, Ps. 127: 2; amp, Ez. 27: 31; x qa, Lam. 3: 12. 

(d) Very unusual is 4— fem., abridged from F— (§ 27, n. 4); as m1 for 
mar, Is. 59: 5. 

(e) H—, without the tone, some forms seem to speak for. E. g. mon, 
Deut. 14: 17; M935 “52m, Hos. 7:4; comp. Ezek. 40: 19. 2 K. 16:18. In 
all these passages, however, the tone on the ultimate should be restored. 
The Punctators, who seem to have felt that there was something inappro- 
priate in the proper fem. ending in these cases, sought to place it in the 
shade by a retraction of the accent. But their views are not binding on us. 
The intonation of "5 appears to indicate a masc. noun; and as such is 
the word employed; besides that 5"> and 5"> also occur in the masculine. 
The like to these are no"hNn, Judg. 14: 18, (elsewhere 07%); M273, Ps. 


148 § 80. ORIGINAL SOURCE OF NOUNS. 


124: 4; mnvan, Ps. 116: 15; and several other words. Still there remains 
here not a little of doubtful ground.* 

(f) Hm, in poetry, is properly a double-ending ; as HDX = NW, Jer. 
29: 6 Kethibh. So the verbal form mms, (§ 74, 4). So noi = mst 
or 32; nna = FPN; nn5 13; see Ps, 3: 3. 44: 27, 92: ae Job 5: ie 
Ex. 15: 16, et in al. loc. 

Nore 3. It is altogether incongruous, when the vowel-ending M—{ is taken 
as the original fem. ending, and the consonant-ending M— is derived there- 
from. The Ethiopie has the Mm throughout; and in the Phenician, nearly 
all the endings are in Mm (not & or 4), which, in the words transferred 
by the Greeks and Romans to their languages, sounds—at ; (see Ges. Mon- 
um. Phenic., pp. 489, 440). The old Arabic has the ancient abbreviated 
vowel-ending, almost only in pause; in the new Arabic, the proportion is 
about the same as in Hebrew. 


§ 80. 
Original source of Nouns. 


Nouns, in respect to their source, are either primrtrves, (§ 81), 
or pERIvATES. ‘I'he derivates are either verbal, i. e. from a 
verb ;’ or nominal, i. e. from a noun.’ 


E. g. (a) a8 father, O& mother. (b) See § 82—84. pry, te Mp3y, 
from pry to be just; BA, Mon, Diva, from 059 fo be high. (c). 539 ‘foot, 
mibssva place for the feet, footstool. 'The number of the verbals, however, is 
by far the greatest. 

Nore |. The older grammarians assume, that the vERB is exclusively the 
stem-word, and that all nouns are verBats. These they divide into, (a) 
Formae nudae, i. e. those which have only three or two stem-letters. (b) For- 
mae auctae, to which, either before or at the close, some accession, (either a 
letter or a syllable), has been made; e. g. M2222, Mi>22, from 722. The 
letters by which this structure is effected, are "727285; which, when point- 
ed so as to constitute a vor memorialis, are read Heemantiv, (°My287); and 
in conformity with these views have they treated this subject. This divi- 





* The ending 7, in these cases, has been compared with the Aramaean status 
emphaticus, so that nih = =bnan. But of this there is reason to doubt; for, (1) 
Some of the examples have the article, which leads us to suppose an ignorance of the 
Aramaean form. (2) The examples belong, in part, to the older books. (3) That 
so old and frequent a word as moat > stands among such forms. Moreover, 75*= may 
be only an Accus. ending, with an adverbial meaning, noctu. Afterwards this might 
be employed for nox, without any special regard to the ending; somewhat like the 
ease of 232, 75322, § 88. (See this word in Lex.). 

+ This‘ending also has been compared with the Aramaean status emphaticus, or else 
regarded as an Acc. ending. 

{ In respect to m consonant as an ending of the fan., no question can well be raised. 
[It is against all analogy and probability.] 


§ S1. NOUNS PRIMITIVE. 149 


sion gave rise to the appellation Nomina heemantica, by which the nomina 
aucta were often called. 

According to § 80, 1, above, the view here taken of roots and stems makes 
the relation of nouns to verbs somewhat different; inasmuch as, according 
to this, many nouns spring directly from the zdeal root. We abide here by 
what is more easy in the way of practice, for beginners in the study of the 
Hebrew. 

Nore 2. Composite names or nouns are on the whole but few in Hebrew, 
and are limited mostly (but not wholly) to proper names ; as >2°>2 good-for- 
nothingness, riyaby death-shade, {are examples of composition without any 
primary design of constituting a proper appellative]; while proper names 
are somewhat numerous, which exhibit amalgamation or composition ; e. g. 
PRAISE Gabriel ; D"2750" Jehoiachin, i.e. Jehovah will raise up ; 37> PIT strength 
of Jehovah ; 5273728 Abimelek, i. e. father of the king. 


§ 81. 
Nouns primitive. 

1. The number of Primitives, in the usual sense of this 
word, is very small, inasmuch as those nouns, which in most 
languages are commonly considered as stem-nouns, are here 
more usually traced back to verbal ideas. 

E. g. 1°28 he-goat, (properly shaggy, from “2¥); MoM stork, (properly 
pia, se. avis); H73Y barley, (prop. prickly, and also from “2¥) ; 3% gold (from 
at = 37% to be yellow). 

Decidedly primitives are the cardinal numbers (} 95); also 
the names of members of the human and animal body are to be 
ranked here, inasmuch as no congruous stem-verb can be found, 
by which they may be explained; e. g. 2p horn, TW breast, ete. 

2, The form of the Primitives is that of the most simple ver- 
bals, like >=p, >2R; and as to the grammatical treatment of any 
word, it makes no difference to what class it belongs. 

E. g. the noun D458 follows the analogy of the Verbals (No. 1, § 83), 
whether it comes, or does not come, from D078 to be red; and so of 38 
father, and =& mother, for they have the forin of verbals which come from 
the stems M28 and Dax, although this can hardly be matter of fact. 


§ 82. 
Of verbal nouns in general. 


1. Verbal nouns attach themselves in Hebrew, as in Greek 
and Latin, in respect to form and meaning, to certain forms of 


150 § 82. vERBAL NOUNS. 


the verb, viz. the Participle and the Inf. mode; which, indeed, 
even in their usual form, are often employed as nouns ; e. g. m2 
(Inf. of 5%) designates knowledge, understanding ; 378 (Part.) 
enemy. Still more frequently are certain other forms of the Inf. 

and Part. of the regular verb, (which, at present, however, occur | 
but seldom or not at all in Hebrew, although common in the 
kindred languages), predominantly employed for the verbal noun. 

E. g. the Participial forms >2p and >up; the Infinitives >yp and n2Bp, 
({§ 45, 2), ete. Some are, (as the Arabic shows), properly intensive forms of 
the Participle. . 

2, In respect to the meaning, it lies in the very nature of 
the thing, that the nouns which attach themselves to the form 
of the Infinitive, usually designate action or condition itself, and 
other proximate ideas (e. g. the place of action) ; and hence they 
mostly designate abstracts. On the contrary, the participial 
nouns, for the most part, designate the subject of action or con- 
dition; and hence they are called concretes. Besides this it 
should be observed, that many of the particular forms of deri- 
vate nouns claim a peculiarity of meaning; although this can- 
not be said with equal truth of all these forms. 

Norte 1. Notwithstanding all these, it need not seem strange, (since it is 
common in all languages), that a noun, which according to its form should 
be regarded as abstract, has often a concrete meaning assigned to it; and so, 
vice versd. So we say, in English: acquaintance, for a person well known ; 
Godhead, for God, ete. In Hebrew, 272 is both acquaintance and person 
well known; "MB means simplicity and simpleton. On the the other hand, 
MNVN (lit. one sinning) means sin ; and thus is it frequently with the fem. of 
concrete words. (See § 83, 5. 6. 11.) 

Nore 2. For the sake of convenient inspection, we shall first treat of the 
Derivates of the regular verbs, § 83; and then of the several classes of the 
irregular verbs, (§ 84). 


§ 83. 
Derivate Nouns of the regular Verbs.* 


I. Participials of Kal. 

(1) Sup, fem. mp, the most simple participial form of verbs midd. A 
(§ 49, 2); and yet not actually employed as a participial, except in verbs 43, 
(§ 71, 4). Most frequently it marks adjectives of quality ; e.g. D2 wise, On 
new, 1" upright. The same form, also, sometimes occurs with an abstract 
meaning; see No. 12 below. 





* Including here the Guttural verbs also. 


§ 83. DERIVATE NOUNS OF THE REGULAR VERB. 151 


(2) dup, fem. M>uP, part. of verbs midd. E, (§49, 2). These mark, for 
the most part, intransitives ({43) and adjectives of quality; e. g. }p1 old, an 
old man, 2" dry, {23 fat. 

(3) d»p and dinp (with O immutable), fem. M>up, Part. of the verb 
midd, O with intransitive meaning; e. g. XP small, "57 fearful, Up> bird- 
catcher ; then more commonly as an adjective, although no Perf. with Hho- 
lem occurs; as 5473 great, piny distant, wisp holy. As a noun abstract, 
TD honour, nibw peace. No. 21, with the last radical doubled, must not 
be confounded with this. 

(4) >wip, up, fem. nbup, m>&p, the usual participial form of transi- 
tives; as 5X enemy, P27 suckling. Thence as a working instrument; as 
wh edge-tool, armour. A fem. with a collective meaning is MAAS caravan, 
properly the wandering, or a wandering company. 

(5) dsup and wp, passive Part. of Kal, (in Aramaean the last form is 
usually a participle), in Hebrew rather as a noun, like the Greek verbals 
in -tog. E. g. "08 taken captive, M42 anointed, but "ON a captive, mwa 
an anointed one. In intransitive verbs also with an active meaning; as "3% 
small, D182 strong. Some words of this form designate a time or season; 
as "XP harvest-time, B77 ploughing-time ; like the Greek verbals in -t0c, 
e. g. auNtos, deotos, (properly the harvested, the being ploughed). The femi- 
nines of this class have usually an abstract meaning, (§ 105, 2); as myn, 
salvation, (literally the being saved). 

(6) >2p (Arab. 58wP), with immutable vowels; in Arabic it is an inten- 
sive form of the participle. Hence, in Hebrew, it designates customary be- 
ing or doing anything; M32 prone to strike or butt, 82m an habitual sinner, 
(different from NOM sinning), 224 thief, etc. Hence oftentimes this form de- 
notes business, employment; e. g. 22 cook, Wan (for wn) artificer. The 
Jem. M>uP, or M2%P, passes easily over into an abstract meaning; as ARVN 
a female sinner and sin; Mp>2a burning fever ; with Guttural as M320 seal- 
ring. Intensive forms, also, are the following : viz. 

(7) bswp and >;~p, (as in Chaldee most adjectives are sounded); e. g. 
prs righteous, “7-28 mighty, \1271 compassionate. In Hebrew, these come 
from mere Intransitives. 

(8) Sip; as TiD7 censurer, WiD4 hero, mighty one ; seldom passive, as 34>" 
born. 

(9) wp denotes very strong intensity ; oftentimes it denotes an excess of 
anything, so as to hecome a blemish or an offence ; e. g. }2 humpbacked, 
mop bald, chy dumb, “a2 blind, Oz lame, v3m dumb, wipe perverted, In the 
Jem., the abstract meaning is the usual one; as M5 foolishness. 


II. Nouns after the manner of the Inf. Kal.* 
(10) S2p, Sep, >4p, (with mutable vowels), together with No. 11, are 








* All these forms are, mutatis mutandis, in the Arabic, and are Infinitives or so-called 
Nomina Actionis. 


152 §83. DERIVATE NOUNS OF THE REGULAR VERB. 


the simplest forms of this kind, the first and last of which forms are com- 
mon to the Inf. of verbs, (§ 45,2). As forms of nouns, they are rare; e. g. 
“2h man, “8B ornament, PHS laughter. Far more frequent, and in their 
place, are employed the closely allied forms: 

(11) Su, Sub, >u5, the three so-called Segholate forms; e. g. 7272 king 
(for "22 or 322, § 28, 4); 9B book, (for BD); WI (for wap) sanctuary, 
with the character-vowel in the first syllable, and the helping [assumed] vowel 
in the second. When the second or third stem-letter is a Guétural, the 
helping vowel is Pattah ; as 27% seed, m3 eternity, 59B work. Examples of 
the fem. of these forms are: npn queen, OX fear, 71 help, 77727} wis- 
dom. 3 

Both masculines and feminines have properly and predominantly an ab- 
stract meaning; but still the concrete one is not unfrequent here, specially 
of the first or 32 form; e. g. 52% king, “23 stripling, a youth, "23 a stupid 
fellow, 123 servant, >23 lord, 33 man. In part, the concrete meaning is sec- 
ondary, and flows out of the abstract, (as in “22 stupidity, "22 youthfulness); 
in part, the form of the word is derived, by abbreviation, from a longer 
concrete word, as 72% king, 72% servant, out of participial words, which 
mean, the reigning one, the serving ide etc.* In general, however, the 
meaning of these forms is manifold; e. g. they are used to designate instru- 
ments, tools, as 277 sword, o7h ipoledéd nation style ; and also with a pas- 
sive sense, as bn bread. In the last kind of designation, the form DUB i is 
more common ; as 52% food, and generally 545 occupies more the abstract 
sphere of meaning; e. g. 923 stripling, but “23 youth (abstract), 

(12) Sup like No 1, fem. rbep, both often with an abstract meaning ; 
e. g. 237 famine, DUN guilt, Daw satiety, (the concretes are 191, DUN, Saw); 
fem. MPIS righteousness, M2P3 vengeance. Rare is the form >UP; as “DU 
intoxicating drink, 33> the grape. 

(13) bop, ep, d.op, Siup, dsop, with final vowel immutable, and 
Sheva vocal under the first radical; e. g. AnD book, SND grief, 2520 way, 
ibn dream, 5121 dwelling. Bictdetnaet 8 prosthetic i is added to such forms; 
as yay = DIM arm, DX brood. The corresponding feminines spontane- 
ously present themselves; such as nap, M2~p; in which state they fall 
in with the fem. of No. 5 abode: 

(14) Sup, Inf. form in Chald. and Syriac; e. g. ww judgment. Related 
forms are “2172 song, Va desire, Mip>2 booty, M2272 kingdom, M73 tra hire. 
This form designates not only action, but specially the place of action; as 
mara altar, "2772 pasture, a waste ; also instrument, as maya knife. 





* In respect to 3572 it is easy to referit to such an origin, from analogy to the Ara- 
bic; in respect to some other words, it becomes more difficult to do this. Comp. 
“-13,as the name of a town lis the appellative “7, wall; also the shortening in 
the const. state; as an, out of 5 


§ 83. DERIVATE NOUNS OF THE REGULAR VERB. 153 


(15) j>up, ep, and like forms with 47— and j=; as j!48 explanation, 
Tata table, jap offering, 3 remembrance, 47393 prophetic vision. 

An abridged form of }\-— is \—, also written 4, which is found in proper 
names; as 7779, and 71533; M2>W, pad, (comp. Midtwr, Plato). Patro- 
nymics and Gentile nouns hold fast the 2, as 725>"w a Shilonite, (from m>u, 
town of Shiloh, and now Silun). 

(16) With the fem. ending mt—; as m3530 folly, MAND" healing. In Ara- 
maean this is the common Inf. ending in the derived Conjugations, (comp. 
No. 28 below). This form is frequent only in the later hooks of the Old 
Test. Asa form of like meaning, M"— occurs sometimes in the earlier 
books; e. g. ANY. (Comp. the Denominatives in § 65, 6.) 


Ill. Participials of the derived Conjugations. 

(17) Niph., DUP; as mindp3, plur., wonders. 

(18) (19) From Piel and Hiph.; e. g. mara snuffers, M202, pruning 
knife. 

(20) Poel; as >bi> and >43, child. 

(21) From Pilel, 2p, fem. M22P ; and (22) >2up, distinguishes in partic- 
ular adjectives of colour; as poy, fem. M278 red, 5259 green, j388 peaceful. 
No. 21 is merely a modification of No. 3. 

(23) bwbup, >o>up, betoken diminutive adjectives, (§ 54,3); as D325 red- 
dish, “N77 blackish ; and consequently in the way of contempt, (like miser, 
misellus, Germ. Gesinde, Gesindel), 5588 the rabble-mob, (here 
with a pass. form, from 50x). 


IV. Infinitives of derived Conjugations. 

(24) From Niphal ; as 27>5m52 combats. 

(25) From Piel; 752, scattering ; oftener in the fem., as MUpP2, with (-) 
immutable. 

(26) sap. (27) DIUpPA, DOP, Infinitives of Piel, (the last is usual in 
Arabic); e. g. 0°>w, retribution, pran folding of the hands, >123m reward, 
F71Sh manile, 

(28) From Hiphil ; as 53218 memorial, Mi23U7 report, (Aram. Infinitives), 
with Qamets immutable. 

(29) From Hithpael ; 2205 catalogue. 

(80) From Poel; as 231m folly. Perhaps also, (31) As “iz"p incense, 
pos prison. 

(32) From Pilel ; H75% dress, covering. (33) 53BN2 adultery. 

(34) mipnpe opening, Inf. to No. 28. 

(35) >upw,e. g. nape ome, | comp. § 54, 6). 

(36) Quadriliterals ; as 220 locust. 

20 


154 §84, DERIVATES FROM THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 


§ 84. 
Derivates from the irregular Verbs. 


The structure of these is entirely analogous to that of deri- . 
vates from the regular verb; and much is differently modified, 
only by reason of the peculiar structure of these stems. We 
shall therefore follow the order of the preceding forms, and no- 
tice only such methods of formation as are indicative of being 
influenced by the irregularities of the stems. 


I. Verbs Pe Nun. 


To the Inf. of Kal the following forms are attached: 14. ja gift, MBI 
overthrow. To the Inf. of Hiphil: 28. n2xh rescue. The noun 372 (knowl- 
edge) comes from 37%, (see § 70, 1). 


IL. Verbs 23. 


From the Part. of Kal comes =m innocent, (like >p); commonly these 
monosyllabic derivates bave a (—), so as to make a sharp sound; as >3 
lowly, 23 much, fem. H23, Wan.* 2.12 fat. From the Inf 10. 11. 12 booty, 
4m grace, PM statute, fem. M22 word, HPN statute. 14. 337 fortress, 3D72 sur- 
rounding ; fem, 232 roll. Out of such forms as 3072, by a retraction of 
the tone a Segholate form is sometimes made; e. g. "72/2 bitterness, 37% cow- 
ardice, (from 32). 22. >p>p despised, "Zinz naked, needy, (a cognate form 
of Pilpel). 27. H>NM praise, N2DM prayer ; also with Segholate forms, as 
dah dissolution, (from 002), }7M mast, (from 427 to creak). Finally from 
the Conj. Pilpel (§ 54, 4), 531 wheel, (from >>5 to roll). 


Ill. From Verbs 4b and "5. 


The participial forms are regular. 'To the Infinitives belong, 10. 35, fem. 
MII, MPI, knowledge, MEP counsel. 13. 710 for Tid, divan, privy council. 
14. xia fear, UP net, mipia birth, 90%72 chastisement. From those prop- 
erly "B, 30% the best. 27, aim inhabitant, n75im generation, y2"- the 
South. 

IV. Verbs 3 and*3. 

Particynals are, 1. "1, foreign. 2. 9 foreigner, M72, witness, testimony. 
3. I~ good, M11D goodness. Infinitives ; 11. The Segholate forms of dif- 
ferent kinds; e. g. mya death, M72 house, Dip voice, M99 spirit ; fem. mbiy and 
maid malignity, Mw shame. 14. mo and mmr rest, Dip" place, also woiwin 
oar, (from wit). 27, M21aH derterity, HAD testimony. 28. HMI rest. 


* On the structure of the fem. form without a Daghesh, see § 92. n. 2. 


§84, DERIVATES FROM THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 155 


V. Verbs >. 

Participials are, 2. 75" beautiful, MXP hard; fem. HB5, Hwp. OF these, 
some drop the 7—; e. g.1m mark, sign, (for Mm). 4. ANA a@ seer; fem. N>i> 
burnt-offering. 5. "OD covering, "2 pure, "22 poor—Infinitives ; 11. The 
Segholates of different forms, not many of which retain their final H—, like 
M22 weeping, M327 friend, HIM and HN4 sight, vision, (Is. 28: 7,15); common- 
ly with the casting away of the F—; e. g. 24 (for M27); or, in case of an 
original Yodh or Vav [medial], this is usually turned into a vowel, i. e. it 
quiesces in an appropriate vowel, (see what is said on "7", § 74. n. 3); as 
“1p fruit, "2m sickness, "72 waste. Sometimes, (although but seldom), the 

"middle radical of masc. gender, in such a case, remains a consonant; as 
yi (d°vay); but the fem. always developes the consonant here; as mow 
tranquillity, mid wreath. 13. INO winter, "MY and fem. H=mw drink ; fem. 
m2 portion, Mixm half, mimy and mor pit. 14, 535% possession, TNA 
sight ; Jem. 382 command ; 332 height, (abridged from mos). 15. jp 
possession, yb destruction. 27. mban annililation, n722m building, ni27n 
brood, 28. 72 testiculus, (for HDWN, from Mwy. 


VI. Doubly wregular Verbs. 

We adduce only a few examples, which may be of some difficulty to 
learners, as to finding the three stem-letters. 

1, From ‘5 and 85; my elevation for nxv, from xt, Job 41: 17. 

2. From “5 and >; as mim law, mB sign, prob. from mp. 

3. From x3 and ib ne tumult, (Num. 24: 17), for >XB, from mew. 

4, From 13 and 45; "" watering, for "17, (from 55); "8 wsland, for "8, 
(from M58); MIN sign, for IS, (from M38); IP line, from MIP; NH chamber, 
for 57, (from 5m to dwell) ; 753 nation, from 473, Arab. confluxit. 

Moreover, in consequence of the contraction of 3, 1, 4, the stem is of- 
ten obscured; e. g. Ms wine-press, for M25, M235, (from 437); 5% anger, for 
DIN; MP time, for mqy, (from M79); "3 (ziv) splendour, for "m1, (from 
nm). 


§ 85. 
Denominative Nouns. 


I, To these belong all nouns which are immediately derived 
from other nouns, whether those others are primitives or verbals. 
E. g. 7209p eastern, from 3p the east, (from ©7p). 

2. Most of the forms of the denominatives are found in the 
verbals, and they appear to be borrowed from them, or to have 
imitated them; for the denominatives appear to be of later ori- 
gin inthe Hebrew than the verbals. E. g. one observed, that 
the verbals with 2 prosthetic (§83. No. 14) were employed to 


156 § 85, DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 


designate the place of action, and then put % before nouns in- 
tended to designate the place where anything is or is done, (No. 
3 below). In Greek and German the verbals and denomina- 
tives are altogether analogous. 


The principal forms are as follows: (1) Like the Part. Kal, (No. 4 of 
the verbals above); “2% door-keeper, from 93% door; “pa herdsman, from 
“pa herd ; D7 vine-dresser, from DID vineyard. 

2) Like the verbals No. 6, MEP an archer, from Mvp bow ; mba seaman, 
from M272, salt, sea. —- Both Nos. 1 and 2 exhibit forms which indicate or- 
dinary occupation or employment; like the Greek nouns in -77¢ -tev¢, € 
MOhitHs, Voommaters. 

(8) With prosthetic 2, which indicates the place where anything is done, 
(comp. verbals, No. 14) ; as j23°2 fountain-place, from 413 fountain ; ripara 
foot-stool, from bay foot ; MIUNV2 pillow, from UX" head; TYP? for ARUP, 
garden of cucumbers, from NYP cucumber. Comp. éusehoy and dunehos. 

(4) With the endings yi-, j=, which mark concretes ; e. g. j272 an ori- 
ental, from Bp the east ; i918 the hinder part, from “8 after ; jnot> coiled, 
coiled serpent, from m1 winding. 

The endings ji—, j!-, also form diminutives, (like the Syriac ji); as 
yiww little man in the eye, apple of the eye, from U8 man ; 7771S" beloved or 
pious little nation, from “183 = VS", upright, a name of soothing for Israel. 

(5) To the denominative the ending *— is peculiar; for it is appended to 
the noun in order to convert it into an adjective. Specially is this applied, 
as a formative of this nature, to the names of numbers, persons, and coun- 
tries, in order to make of them ordinals, gentile appellations, and patronymics. 
E. g. “22 strange, from “23 stranger ; "2 the sixth, from Sw six; "ANi2 a 
Moabite, from aria Moab ; "5x7v7 an Israelite, from >x7v" Israel. When 
the stem-noun is a composite one, it is usually separated into two words, as 
“vaya a Benjamite, from 7772923; (see respeciing the article in such cases, 
§ 100, note). Rarely is the ending "— instead of "—; as (a) The ending (*—) 
is sometimes employed, (as in Aramaean); e. g. ">"> crafty. Sometimes in 
proper names; as in "35 Haggai (the prophet). (b) The (-) is sometimes 
put for ("—); as M225, prob. milky, the storar-tree. 

(6) With the endings ms—, m*—, which are appended to concretes, and 
‘then form abstracts, [like the English -dom, -ship, -ness]. E. g. nt>>2 king- 
dom, from 72%; mi22>X widowhood, from 7228, AY228 widower, widow; 
mw the beginning, from UNa = WR prince, head. (See the Verbals, No. 
16 above). 


-g. 


§ 86. 
Of the Plural. 


J. The plural is marked in the masculine, by the ending =°- 


§ 86. NoUNS PLURAL. 157 


appended}; e. g. 580, 5°19; which, though rarely, is sometimes 
written defective, as 5°n. 

The endings of the noun singular occasion some small diversity here. If 
the sing. ends with ("), then the full plur. ending (comprising this Yodh) 
would, if written plené, be o— (iy-yim); e. g. “22 a Hebrew, full plur. 
ps2, Ex. 3:18. But contraction is usual here, as H™3>, (§ 91, VILL) ; 
and so "70, plur. o°7.—Nouns ending in 7- drop this ending in order to 
receive the plur. appendage ; as Mn, plur. oth. 

This ending (-im) is predominant in the Phenician also; e. g. 225" Sido- 
nians. ‘The Aramaean has -in; the Arabic -wn (Nom.) and -in in the ob- 
lique cases; the Aethiopic -an. It is, in fine, identical with the verbal plur. 
ending ji-. 


Unusual forms of the Plural. 

(a) }"=, as in Chaldee and Syriac; found almost exclusively in the later 
and the poetic writings of the O. Test.; e. g. 792272, Prov. 31:3; jv27, Dan. 
12: 13; written defectively in j*& islands, Ezek. 26: 18. Comp. Judg. 5: 10. 
Job 15: 13. 24: 22. 31: 10. Lam. 1: 4, et al. 

(b) "—i. e. with D rejected, (as in the Dual, "35 for o55>) , Ezek. 13: 18, 
(comp. the status const., § 87, 2); e. g. "2 for D°22, Ps. 45:9; "a2, 2 Sam. 
22: 44, (nYa> in the parallel passage, Ps. 18: 44, but "a again in Lam. 3: 
14. Ps. 144: 2). This ending is, in several places, doubted by many; see 
2 Sam. 23: 8, and comp. 1 Chron. 11: 11. 1 Sam. 20: 38, Kethibh; see also 
Gesen. Lehrgeb. d. Heb. Sprache, s. 524 ff More doubtful is also, 

(c) "—, (like the const. state in the Syriac); and under this rubric are reck- 
oned "71h white garments, Is. 19:9; "VB for nw, Judg. 5: 15; 2m win- 
dows, Jer. 22: 14. Perhaps the last is Dual, (§86b, n. 1). Possibly "1 
may mean my princes, and so the *— is a plur. suff; and *— in "71m may bea 
formative affix. Moreover “5x21, Is. 20: 4, is in the const. state. But "73, the 
mighty One, probably = “73, according to the form >2p; and in "2%:, Nah. 
3: 17, the (") belongs to the stem, since it comes from 333. Finally, in 
“25% (my lord), the (>) was originally a suffix; § 120, n. 4. 


2. The plur. fem. is marked by the ending —, which comes 
in place of the fem. sing. ending, "=, "=, "=; and where these 
are wanting, then ni- is simply annexed, (} 79, 2); for the lat- 
ter, an example is “83, plur. "983; for the former nin, nian; 
MAN, MAN. 

The feminines in >*- form the plural in m*-; and those in m1— 
form it in mit; e. g. m™39, plur. nim39; M299, plur. nivs>2; but 
then the basis of these plurals must after all be the sing. forms 
m— and nr. 


158 § 86. NOUNS PLURAL. 


It comes from a disregard to the original source of the ending mi— and 
m"—, when the plur. ending D*— is attached to such words; e. g. M™3M, 
plur. bom 2 and nim; mat, Dom2t; so also DIMI , and others. 
The plur. nny (e-dh°voth), with + consonant, from sing. M54}, is altogether 
in the manner of the Syriac. 

N. B. This ending (-6th) stands for -dth, (for so it is in Arab., Ethiop., 
and Chaldee, see on the obscuration of d into 6, § 9, 10, 2), and -dth is pro- 
perly nothing more than the extension and strengthening of the sing. fem. 
ending -dth, (§ 79, 2). Intensity should characterize the plural. But this 
ending, when widely employed, came naturally to be attached, even to those 
words which did not end in m-—. 

In what manner the (mutable) vowels of a noun are affected by the plu- 
ral-ending, is shown by § 91. § 93. 


2. Words of the common gender have often both a.mase. 
and a fem. termination in the plural; and both these forms may 
be, and often are, employed for either gender ; 2}, plur. D°823, 
mie. 

In some cases, the two plurals are used in a somewhat diverse sense; 
so that the usus loquendi must be particularly watched here, It is the case 
with a considerable number of nouns in Hebrew, that they form plurals of 
both kinds. In such cases, the gender of the singular belongs to both forms; 
e. g. 757, plur. ow and minis, Job 42: 16, (both masc.); so M7, fem., as 
are both the plurals 5°78 and mi38. So "x lion, plur. mim28 masce., Zeph. 
3: 3. | 

Sometimes the two forms are separated by special usage; e. g. in com- 
mon prosaic use, we have D2" days, and 0°28 years, but in poetry we have 
min and mizw. Specially is this the case with the names of the members 
of the human body; for the dual of these names denotes the living mem- 
bers of the body, while the plural denotes merely objects which imitate or 
are like them, i. e. things which consist of lifeless matter; e. g. O°BD hands, 
MieD handles ; O°27p horns (of a beast), 29 horns (of the altar); bi3"y eyes, 
MID springs. 

4. A considerable number of masculines form their plural in 
m™—; and many feminines form theirs in ®"=. Yet, in the gene- 
ral, the gender of the singular passes into the plural unaltered, 
[whatever may be its form]. 

E. g. a8 father, plur. niay; Dw, plur. miaw. Vice versa: mba, Brdn, 
both fem.; 23 concubine, plur. nwabe. 

&. A fixed and entire separation of the two genders is found 
principally in adjectives and participles. 


§ 86 b. NOUNS DUAL. 159 


E. g. pyaiv boni, niniv bonae; so m°>uP mase. and mi>byp fem. But 
nouns from the same root, which follow, in their meaning, the natural gen- 
der of objects, remain fixedly separate; as 5°22 sons, and mi22 daughters ; 
n>39 kings, nizz queens. 

Nore 1. In a few cases, to the plur. ending mi— is added, by usage, a 
second plur. ending 2" , (which, before the Gen., becomes "—, comp. § 87, 
2); sometimes, also, an additional dual-ending D‘—; e. g. M22 the height, 
plur. ni22, const. "M123; so Daxw omits, from the pillow of Saul; in the 
fem. 725 wall, plur. nyain, dual mhisin double wall. This doubled mode 
of marking the plural, lies also in the connection of suffices with the plural 
ending mi—; (see § 89, 3). 

Nore 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural; e, g. B°m2 men, (in 
Ethiop. the sing. is met); and some of these plural forms have the meaning 
of a singular, (§ 106, 2); e. g. 228 face. The same form, in these cases, is 
also employed for the expression of the plural, when it is needed; e. g. 
B28 faces, Ezek. 1: 6. 


§ 86 b. 
Of the Dual. 


J. The Dual is a modification of the plural. It is found 
only in a few nouns, and belongs not to adjectives, verbs, or 
pronouns. It has no distinction of gender; and it is formed by 
adding ="= to the singular. 

E. g. 77 hand, dual 2%5> the two hands ; so Di" day, dual pvais. The fem. 
(5—) here is changed into (n—); as Hw lip, D"mEw. In the ending n—, the 
supposititious vowel is dropped, and the ™ remains; e. g. Muna, dual 
bine}. 

It should be also noted, that the shortening of the vowels in 
the dual, is somewhat more extensive than in the plural, because 
of its length. 

E. g. 535 foot, plur. 5°535, dual 5°53; yet sometimes as D*39p and S"S5p, 
from }2; "M>, dual ond. 

Nore 1. Unusual forms of the Dual, which belong mostly to proper 
names, are the following: (a) j"—, and contracted j-; e. g. AS, Gen. 37: 
17, and jn5, 2 K. 6: 13, (prop. name, T'wo Wells). (b) t= and D—; as D3 
and D322 (prop. name); 0°20 two, in the connection "We DIY twelve. (c) 
“—, (dropping the 5); as "7, Ezek. 13: 18; prob. "2>m (double window), 
Jer. 22: 14. 

Nore 2. Merely apparent Duals are the words D%2 water, D725 heavens ; 
and so px>waq7 (also >—-). The first two are plurals from obsolete sin- 
gulars, "2, "2; the latter is a lengthened form of the old pbs, (see Ges. 


160 § 87. GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE. 


Thes. p. 629); comp. the shorter form =>w, in Ps, 76: 3, and the Chaldee - 
nota. 

2. The use of the Dual in Hebrew, (besides the numeral 
use for 2, 12, 200, etc., § 95), is limited principally to those objects _ 
which are naturally double, or which by nature or art are pairs. 

E. g. 25> two hands; D158 two ears; 072% two rows of teeth. So 7323 
a pair of shoes ; 2738/2 a pair of balances ; 07425" two (successive) days ; D°NI 
two (successive) years ; D902 two ells. In the first case (objects naturally 
double), the Dual is also employed for the plural; as D[DID WY six wings, 
Is. 6: 2. So in Ezek. 7: 17, pip a">D every knee or all knees. Sometimes, 
in the way of intensity, two is expressed along with the dual number, Amos 
3: 12. Judg. 16: 28. (See further, on the Dual, § 86, 3,4, notes). 

Remarks. It is not to be doubted, that the Hebrews, at an earlier pe- 
riod, used the Dual in a more comprehensive and freer manner, and that 
the limitations and remission of it belong to a development of the language 
which is of the later stamp. The written language of the Arabic forms the 
Dual in nouns, pronouns, and verbs (with participles), about to a like ex- 
tent with the Greek and Sanscrit. But in the new Arabic it disappears in 
all but the noun. The Syriac has it only in some two forms, like the Ro- 
man in duo, ambo, So it is dropped in the recent Hindoo languages, [and 


in Romaic]. For the Dual in German, see Grimm’s Germ. Gramm. I. s. 
814. 2 Ausg. 


§ 87. 
The Genitive and Construct State. 


1, The Hebrew language does not exhibit, at present, any 
living active use of case-endings.* It does not mark externally 
the relation of cases in a noun either as being of the Nom., 
Accus., or Gen.; but designates the oblique cases either by pre- 
positions, or, in case of the Gen., by a close union in position, 
and a subordination to the noun which takes the lead. The 
noun which is put for a Gen., undergoes no change in itself; but 
occasions one in the preceding noun which stands connected with 
it. Inasmuch as both words are necessary to complete the idea, 
they are so drawn together that the first shortens its vowels, and 
in part its consonants, when this can be done, in order that the 
voice may hasten on to the principal tone, which is upon the 
second word.} 





* For some defunct endings of this kind, see § 88. 

t The general inclination of the Heb. language is to throw the tone upon the end 
of a word, and also the main stress of voice on the end of clauses of intimately con- 
nected words; (see § 29, 1). 


§ 87. GENITIVE AND CONSTRUCT STATE. 161 


E. g. out of such connection "23, but followed by a Gen., Dot>x “23 
the word of God, (quasi Word- God, "the reverse of our God’s word) ; so a 
hand, 25373 72 hand of the king ; case of consonants also falling away, sh 
words, 2273 "725 words of the people, (where both the vowels and consonants 
of the first word are abridged). 


The changes in question, then, have respect to the first word 
in such a connection; and this word, subject to these changes, 
is said to be in the Construct Strate. A noun not followed 
by a Gen., is said to be in the AssoLuTEe Stare. 


N. B. Whether the two words are connected or not by a Maqgeph (§ 16, 
1), makes no difference as to the vowel changes. That is an affair con- 
nected merely with accentuation. On the more extended use of the con- 
struct state, § 113. § 114. 


2. Particulars respecting the vowel changes which are pro- 
duced by the construct state, are presented in the Paradigms 
connected with § 90—92. The endings of the noun in the const. 
state are, in part, affected so as to give to the word a peculiar 
form: viz. 

(a) The dual and plural endings, n"—, 6°—, drop their D, and are written ° 
and sounded "—; e. g. D'O5D horses, MED “OAD the horses of Pharaoh ; O°2"y 
eyes, "NII "27D the eyes of the man. 

(b) The fem. ending H—, (the usual ending of the absolute fem. noun), 
assumes in the construct state the form of (m=); e. g. MD>2 queen, m2 
Nau the queen of Sheba. But when the fem. has already the ending (n-), 
this remains unchanged, (§ 79, 1, n. 1). 

(c) Nouns in (5—) from verbs > (484, V.), obtain in the room of this 
termination, the ending (F—), when in the const. state, (see § 74, 1. n.); 
as ANA, const. AX. 

Nouns in (*—) take ("—) in its room; e. g. "Mm, const. "1; and so N43, 
const. 8"1.—On the ending (4) and (*—) in the const. state, see § 88. 

Remarks. The liquid 5 falls away here, just as the Latin final m fell 
away before a vowel, in common parlance, and in poetry; Quinctil. Instt. 
Orat. IX. 4,§ 40. In the same manner the final n falls away in Arabic and 
Aramaean, and usually in the plur. ending 5;- of the verb, (9 44, 1. § 47, n. 
4). The vowel letter i which then remains, after 0 is dropped, takes an a 
to strengthen itself, and from this a and i combined arises the ending (*—) ; 
see in §7, land §9,6. Instead of this ("—), the Syrians have ("—); and 
some trace of this is found in the connection of the suffives with the plur. 
noun, (§ 89, 2). Here probably belongs the controverted form, mY "pI0N, 
Is, 20:4. (Some also find it in Judg. 5: 15.) That the ("—) const, of the Dual 
comes from (*—), is plain of itself. 

21 


162 § 88. REMAINS OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS. 


§ 88. 
Remains of ancient Case-ending's. 


The H~ local ; "— and \— in the Construct State. 

1. As the Arabic distinguishes three cases by ending’s, so. 
are there traces of three endings of the Heb. noun, which cor- 
respond in sound with those Arabic ones, but have mostly lost 
their significance, and appear now only as the fallen ruins of an 
organism once fuller and more animated, since the language, as 
we have it in books, no longer exhibits any separation of cases 
by means of word-endings. 


The Arabic endings are -u for the Nom., -¢ for the Gen., and -a for the 
Acc., (corresponding to the three leading classes of the vowels). In new 
Arabic, these endings have disappeared, even to that of the Acc., except 
that now and then this last is heard in the adverbial Acc. The Ethiopic 
has saved only the -a, and this it employs in the whole domain of the Acc., 
and also (in its lack of case-distinctions) as the ending of a noun in the 
const. state followed by the Genitive. 


&. Most evident of all is the Acc. relation in the toneless 
ending (“~), which is appended to a noun as follows: 


(a) Most frequently to show direction or motion towards anything; (see 
Synt., 116, 1); e. g. M25 toward the sea, westward ; HEX northward ; 7X 
toward Assyria ; maa toward Babylon; 5278 toward the earth. With the 
article: moan toward the mountain; non into the house; in the plural, 
mars to the Chaldeans ; 12772 toward heaven. It may even stand in the 
const. state; as 90%" ANA to the house of Joseph; pas 17377 to the wilder- 
ness of Damascus ; Day nna toward sun-rising, (accent here anomalously 
on the ultimate). 

(4) Somewhat weaker is the meaning of (4—), when, as at times is the 
case, it points only in a general way to the place, where any particular thing 
is, or is found; e. g.m>52 at Babylon, Jer. 29:15; mS in the dwelling, 
Hab. 3: 11; also m8 there, Jer. 18: 2, (oftener thither). 

(c) Still weaker is the meaning, when moreover a preposition is prefixed 
to such a form; mDINwe at or in the under world, Ps. 9: 18; 523% upward ; 
massa in the south, Jos, 15: 21; M327 from Babylon, Jer. 27: 16. 

The local relation of this ending is the reigning one, (m= local); yet in a 
few cases, it refers to time; e. g. (perhaps) HM3 now (at this time), from m3; 
raves ova from year to year. Peculiar is H>4>m, prob. ad profanum = 
absit! As Acc. of object, (yet approaching very near to the local relation), 
is }8921 OE7& and "mp2 HY, Is. 8: 23, comp. Job 34: 13. 

Remark. Inasmuch as this ending (n—) is normally toneless, most words, 


§ 88. REMAINS OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS. 163 


as the examples above show, do not change their vowels on account of it. 
But where this is a helping vowel in a Segholate form, this falls away and 
becomes Sheva, as yIX, ME78, (§ 91, 6,1); or where the short Hhireq of the 
Dual occurs, the same thing takes place; e. g. DYavin (like the Dual in its 
form), ™2"2. Sometimes this (n=) is shortened into (M—); as M33 to 
Nob, 1 Sam. 21: 2, comp. Ezek. 25: 13. 

&. Less frequent, and almost only in poetry, do we find the 
other two endings, which, with the Acc. ending just noticed, 
corresponded to the Arabic case-endings, viz. (-) for the Gen., 
and ‘— (sometimes ‘— in proper names), for the Wominative. But 
language does not recognize, at present, any regular indication 
of case-relations by means of these, but regards them rather as 
Arabisms, which, in poetry and solemn discourse, and in com- 
posite proper names, have descended from ancient times. 
These endings are employed only in cases of the closest con- 
nection of noun to noun, i. e. in the const. state.* 

(a) The ending ("—) is not very unusual in the const. state, and commonly 
has the tone. E. g. jN8 1313, he who forsakes the flock, Zech, 11: 17; 723 
"20, the inhabiter of the thorn-bush, Deut. 33: 16.—In the fem., rp") pore! 
that which was stolen by night, Gen. 31: 39 (prose); wetia "nxbo full of jus- 
tice, Is. 1: 21; pyx™>>2a "N35 Dy according to the order of Melchizedek, Ps. 
110: 4—Frequently when a preposition is prefixed to the second word, 
(comp. § 114); e. g. HtAD "M39 mistress among the nations, Lam. 1: 1; "708 
(Bia he who bindeth to the vine, Gen, 49: 11, comp. Is. 22: 16. Mic. 7: 14. 
Ps. 110: 4. 113: 5, 9, etc. Several of the particles take the same ("—), thus 
showing, that in effect they are nouns in the const. state; e. g. "M251 besides, 
“22 from, "22 not. Also in composite proper names; as pros Mel- 
chizedek ; 8°73 Gabriel, i. e. man of God ; >x"27 Hanniel, i. e. mercy of God ; 
comp. the Punic Hannibal, i. e. 522"2m favour of Baal. 

(b) The ending (i-) is much rarer; in prose it is found only in the Pen- 
tateuch, and there in solemn speech, as Gen. 1: 24, ya %m7m beast of the 
earth, and the same form repeated from this passage, in Ps. 50: 10. 79: 2. 
104: 11, 20. Zeph. 2: 14. Is. 56:9. Elsewhere "32 123 the son of Beor, Num. 
24: 3,15. Also D2 1293°2 water source, Ps, 114: 8; perhaps, also, oxy jue: 
the soul of the slothful, Prov. 13: 4. 

The shortening of the vowels which these endings bring about, may be 
seen from the examples above. The Pattah of the fem. ending (m—) be- 
comes either a Sheva, or a Qamets. 





* In the connection of words customary in ancient times, these old endings are 
often preserved, while, out of such connection, they are rarely to be found, or not at 
all. E. g. the fem. ending (n—) is still in a Genitive connection, (§ 87, 2, b), and in 
a verb connected with a suffix, (§ 58,1). So there is preserved in the poets, and in 
proper names, many relics of the ancient language. 


164 § 89. NOUN WITH PRONOUN SUFFIXES. 


Inasmuch as these endings, "~ and ‘—, appear to have been given up as 
marking the relation of case, so we cannot now regard them with certainty 
as case-endings; but still, it is quite probable, that they were once so in 
the living language, as well as ("—) under No. 2. In particular are we sup- 
ported in this view by the Arabic, which once had the same endings, and- 
afterwards lost them, like to the Hebrew. In Latin, moreover, we find a use 
of the Casus localis (locative case) which has been arrested, as in proper 
names, in rurt, domi, etc. In the new Persian plural endings -dn and -hd, 
are contained old case-endings, which howeyer, as such, have no living 
energy at present; not to mention the Roman and German languages.— 
Even in instances where the old Arabic employed case-endings, which 
have become incorporated, in a manner, with the stem-word itself, e. g. in 
NON, "AN, NIN (const. state of 1X father), the new Arabic employs all these, 
but withont designating a difference of cases by them. In accordance with 
this, the Heb. const. state, "38, "TI, is properly a Gen. ending. In’Chaldee 
we have "38; in Hebrew 3m72 (in Mmb>viarva), yaw (in Sxvaw), 12 (bNB), 
are to be regarded as Nom. endings; so that both forms, >8°25 and >x525, 
“aims and 7272°nN , may occur. 


§ 89. 
The Noun with Pronoun Suffixes. 


As to the connection of the noun with personal pronouns, 
(which in such a connection represent a Gen. case, (} 33, 2. b), 
two thing's, (as in case of the verb, § 56, seq.), require our atten-_ 
tion; (1) The form of the suffix itself. (2) The change in the 
noun by reason of it. The latter is exhibited in the Paradigms 
of the flexion of nouns (§ 90 seq.); here, therefore, we have to 
treat principally of the first. A synopsis of them will be found 
in Par. A, at the close of this work. We shall first consider in 
what manner the suffixes are attached to nouns in the Singular ; 
and then, in the Plural and Dual. 

1. The Suffixes to the Singular are as follows: 


Sing. 1. ¢. = mine. Plur. 1. ce. 53, = our. 
[ m. > IT; in) bis b>, rare 
2.4 pause yr } thine. 2. your. 
kins cient LA RR J 
Beli nt, 45 I, 4, A his. _ (m. OF, B=, poet. 
Sc 4, Fs, > her. ‘=> their (masc.) 


f. 3, 8, 4¢ their 
(fem.) 


§ 89. NOUN WITH PRONOUN SUFFIXES. 165 


Nore 1, The variety in forms here is narrower than that in the case of 
the verbs. The manner of appending the suffixes is as follows: 

(a) The forms without a union-vyowel are attached to nouns that end in a 
vowel; e.g. "SN, AN, also SN, ASN, SN, OAMAN, PAR. But 
the noun-endings, ("— and H—, § 87, 2), are not included here. 

(6) The forms with union-vowels, (§ 57, 3. b), are appended to nouns 
which end in a consonant; which include the great mass. In respect to 
the union-vowel here, the 4 sound is predominant, and is attached to the 
suffixes 1, F (out of 4-), fem. H—, third plur.o-, ia-,}-. The forms 
with E sounds are limited almost entirely to nouns that end in N—; as 
wm7Y, TI. On the contrary, as to j— and *2—, they are almost constantly 
employed, and forms like 5—, 52~, are rarities. See n. 2 below. 

Note 2. Unusuat rorms. These are, (a) The second pers. mase. sing., 
M2_, as in W282, Ps. 189: 5.—Fem, 57— Ezek. 5: 12, 22- Ps. 103: 4, once 
ms— Nahum Q: 14, (several Mss. 53-, a4 m— equivalent to *_). (6) The 
third pers. H—, namely in the frequent form rbis (o-h°lo), Gen. 9: 22. 12: 
8. 13: 3. 35: 21; Ap, 2 K. 19: 23, but in Is. 37: 24, izp; mmio, Gen. 49: 
1] (Qeri ‘). 

(c) Pouran. First pers, 12—, as ya"p, Job 22: 20. Ruth 3: 2. Is. 47: 10. 
(d) Second person, 732-, Ezek. 23: 48,49. (e) Third mase., O— , 2 Sam. 23: 
6, for B=, (from which comes the contracted form D—).—Fem. mans , | K. 
7: 37; m-, Gen. 41: 21; m2-, Ruth 1: 19, elsewhere mostly in pause. 
Moreover jf- is rare, Is, 3: 17; most commonly in the form j-. 


2. When the Suffixes are added to the plur. mase. in 5, 
and the dual in 5°, that is, to the const. state of these which 
ends in *~, ($87, 2), this ending combines with the suffixes, 
and thence arise some new vowels, as follows: 


Suffixes of Nouns plural. 


Sing. 1. c. "= mae Plur, 1..¢..2"> our. 
Mm. > m, 02°— 
2. foe -| tine, 0, | fea your. 
3 m. =, poet. m= his. (m. oy, 
fm her. 3.4 poet. var- p their 


Lx 
In most of these forms, the ending of the plur. construct remains unchang- 
ed ; as Sh|"O8D, 53/"O1O, O2|"O; in others Seghol takes the place of the 
construct (*—), 210, "O50; in three forms, with very short suf- 
fixes, the ending is Beas! "—, (see $87. n.); e. g. O45 out of 4/*D4D; 
JOO out of 5/"o4D, (comp. § 28, 4); “OAD out of 4|"o50 contracted. 

















166 § 89. NOUN WITH PRONOUN SUFFIXES. 


Note J. The Yodh, which distinguishes these suffixes, is, in words oc- 
curring here and there, omitted in the writing, (written defective); e. g. 
7273 for Fra3, Ex. 33: 138; sms for sm29, Job 42: 10; pi? (plur.) 
after their kinds, Gen. 1: 21. Most frequent is this with the suff. of the 
third pers. masc. sing., where \— frequently occurs, which the Qeri amends — 

_by writing "—; e. g. 18M, Ps. 58: 8, Qeri EN. 

; Nore 2. The unusual forms here are: Srve., second pers. fem. 37—, Ecc. 
10: 17; "25=, Ps. 103: 3, 4, 5.—Third masc., *i— (an entire Chaldee form), 
Ps. 116: 12. — Third fem, 819,= , Ezek. 41: 15. — Puor., fem. m3"—, Ezek. 
13: 20; mah, Ezek. 40: 16; ma"—, Ezek. 1: 11. 

Nore 3. In respect to 12-, see § 101, 2. note. 

>, That the Yodh (*) in these suffixes of the noun plural, ac- 
tually belongs to the ending of ihe masc. plural in the const. 
state, is clear and beyond a doubt. But the consciousness of 
this in speaking the living language seems to have been so 
worn away, that a striking peculiarity, (in a sense—incorrect- 
ness), of speech arose, viz., that the suffix forms, including the 
"= which belonged in reality to the endings of the masce. plur. 
nouns, were appended in like manner to the feminine forms of 
the plural in mi-. 

E. g. 19D, FAMIOIO, MmMIOW, (just as these suffixes are attached to 
the masc. plural); so that in fact there is here a double designation of the 
plural fem. (In § 86, 5. n. 1, may be seen parallels with this; and in §79, 
2. n. 2. f, is a double ending of fem. singular.) Such is the rule; [i. e. the 
suffixes of the masc. and fem. plural are the same, including also the Yodh 
which precedes them]. But there are occasional Exceptions to this; in 
which case the pure suffix, (as in No lL. above), is attached directly to the 
noun plural; e. g. "M79, Ps. 132: 12; ymin, Deut. 28: 59.—In the 
third plur. pronoun this mode is even the more usual one; e. g. DMISN, 
more common than DAMIAN; and so aniay, anit. 

4., To exhibit clearly these views of the subject, we subjoin 
a Table or Paradigm of the Suffixes in connection with nouns 
of both genders and numbers. for this purpose a word has 
been chosen, the stem-letters of which do not change. It will 
be seen, that for the fem. ending (-), that of (m=), a construct 
ending, is adopted before suffixes; which last ending, however, 
prolongs the Pattah into Qamets, in all cases where the Pattah 
would come to stand in an open syllable, (comp. § 87, 2. b). 
The (=) remains before ©2, j2, because it continues here to be 
in a closed syllable. 


Sing. 1. ¢. 


§89. NOUN WITH PRONOUN SUFFIXES. 167 
Singular. 
Mase. Fem. 
O10 horse. mold mare. 
ADD my horse. NOI my mare. 


JOD thy 
OID thy 
NDIO his 
FIDO her 
§ID30 our 
BIO your 


Sf 


joo10 your —f. 


DON their 


Jord their — fi 


Mase. 


Plural. 


DOD horses. 


“O15 my horses. 


FOI thy 


FIO thy — f- 


POI his 
MO her 
9D°DND our 


DS" your 


JOO your 


» DMO ther — 


St 


JVOW ther — /f. 


—f 


AMOI thy 
JNDIO thy 
NDAD his 
MINI her 
WROD our 
DINO your — 
JONOID your — ff 
NDI their — 
JNO their — f. 


— 


Fem. 
MIOID mares. 
SMIDID my mares. 
PNION thy — 
TNIOI thy — f- 
WMIDID his 
MIO her 
NAO our 
DDMOID your 
JE-MIOro your 
PND their — 
TMI their — f. 


— 
—_—— 
— 


—— 


Sf 


168 §90. voWEL-CHANGES IN THE NOUN. 


§ 90. 
Vowel-changes in the Noun. 


1, These changes are brought about, (a) By a following 
Genitive. (b) By appending personal pronouns. (c) By the — 
plural and dual endings; and these may be followed by a Gen- 
itive, and also by suffixes. 

2, By these means the tone is shifted more or less, and 
sometimes upon the suflix which is appended. ‘Three cases of 
this nature may be distinguished. 


(a) When the tone advances one syllable or place, which is the case when 
most of the suffixes of the noun singular are appended; e. g. "—3 A=, 373 
4-, 5 Fe, A515, =; as 93, “23, MS, etc, The plu- 
ral and dual endings produce the same effect; e. g. D°725, sing. 333 wing, 
dual 27522. (Generally, in the first five Forms or Declensions of the 
masc, nouns, the penult vowel (if mutable) falls away and becomes Sheva ; 
in the other nouns, there is a variety of changes, which must be learned 
from the Paradigm, and the nature of the case; e. g. 3&8, "AX, ete. ; 733 
masa; EY, "ot; DN, MN; HIh, Nh, ete] 

The light suffixes* of the plural produce the same effect as those of the 
singular, viz.°.3 =, Pos Ms, WH, M53 wR; war; e.g. 735, 
AWAIT, etc. 

(b) When the tone goes forward two places, as when the grave suffixes of the 
Plural are added, viz. D2"—, j3"—, DF", jt*—, (tone on the ultimate), the 
ultimate and penult vowels(if mutable) are changed; e. g. 82°75, OF"935. 
[The construct statet produces the like effect, § 87, 1.] E. g. ben “23 the 
words of the people. ' 

The Segholate forms, with penult tone, suffer less change by a suffix, than 
by the plural endings 5‘, ni; e. g. 92%, with light suff. "D>", leaving 
the leading vowel under the first stem-letter, while the plur. (B4227) throws 
the vowel forward under the second stem-letter. (See §91, 6.) 

(c) When the pronoun appended begins with a consonant which has no 
union-vowel, and which makes a syllable by itself, (viz. the suffixes 7— ; 
DS—, j2-3 OF-, j-, j4-, the last three being more usually written as b—, 
j-), the changes follow the nature of the word appended. 'The F-— is a light 











* See on the nature of these, the Note that follows the Paradigm of nouns, § 91. 

+ [Gesenius and Roediger state this matter thus: “ When the tone advances two places, 
as in the const. state of the plural, ete.” But the const. state does not advance the tone 
beyond where it stands in the absolute plural. The clipping of the vowels in the 
const. state belongs to rhetorical enunciation, not to the removal of the word-tone be- 
yond where it is in the absolute plural, but to the removal of the emphasis of the 
voice.—S.] 


§91. PARADIGM OF MASCULINES. 169 


suffix, and operates in the same way as "—, \—; as 727, 7135, 7221. The 
others are grave suffixes, and shorten the word as much as may be; e. g. 
p27 27, see Par. The like with the const. state ; as DTN "27. 

3. The vowel-changes in the feminines (§ 933) are not so 
considerable as in the masculines, since, in consequence of their 
formation out of the masculines, ($92), they have already been 
subjected to change. 

These vowel-changes, and the internal declension of nouns, are grounded 
on the general principles developed in § 23 seq. above. But those princi- 
ples are not adequate to the explanation of all the phenomena. Many of 
the changes rest upon the peculiar structure of certain forms of nouns, of 
which some account has been given in §83—85. Finally, all the changes 
in question respect almost entirely the ULTIMATE and PENULT syllables of words: 
The antepenult very rarely has a mutable vowel; (comp. in § 27). 

N. B. A striking difference between shortening vowels in the verb and in 
the noun, is this, viz., that in the verb, where of two mutable vowels one of 
them is shortened, that one is the second, e. g. up, fem. N2Up, plur. BP; 
while in nouns just the reverse of this takes place, viz., the jirst vowel is 
changed, e. g. 923, "225, 0°35, ete. ; comp. § 27, 3. 

Changes of the consonants in nouns occur very rarely, and only in those 
of form TX. in the Paradigm. | 

We subjoin Parapiems of the flexion, and changes from other 
causes, of the forms of nouns, with explanatory remarks, in the 
following order, viz. (1) The Paradigm of Nouns masculine, $ 
91. (2) The vowel changes in the formation of Feminines, § 92. 
(8) Paradigm of Nouns feminine, § 95. 


§ 91. 
Paradigm of Masculines. 
Nouns masculine, in respect to their vowel-changes, may be reduced to NINE 


Criasses; which are exhibited in the following table, and to this explana- 
tions are subjoined. Here we premise only two remarks of a general nature. 


(a) That all feminine nouns, with a mase. form in the singu- 
lar, (§ 105, 1. 3), are declined in the same way as masculines, 
with the exception, that they usually (not always) form their 
plur. by suflixing mi-;e. g. 27% fem., plur. nino, const. plur. 
miatn. The suffixes demand the more thorough kind of short- 
ened forms in these cases. See Par. of Fem.,§93. 

(b) Thatin the plural, the so-called light suffixes are attached 
to the absolute state, while the grave ones are joined with the 
const. state; as the Paradigm will show. 

22 


170 §91. PARADIGM OF NOUNS MaSsc. 


Paradigm 
L. II. II. IV. 
(immutable) a. 
Sing. absolute. DIO DP care 725 
(horse) (eternity) (overseer) (word) 
— construct. O10 adi TPE 737 


— light Suf. "31> ay PPD A 
— grave Suf* D20%>  oynbiy oyTPB, 05037 
Plur. absolute. ah DID onbiy OPED o724 
— construct. ADD di “PD m7 
— light Suf. — 09> Ay PB A 
— grave Sf. DID ODAbIy OPH O27 
Dual absolute. «ra Apso weAW | NED 


— construct. orp) 
VI. 

oo Oc”; 

d. e. ft: g. h. 

Sing. absolute. NI Gone Seb ahora geet 

(youth) (eternity) (work) (death) (olive) 


— construct. "3 m3 by5 nia nv 
—— light Suf. "7932 "32 7B AT oy 
— grave Suff. nI173 Dons nobep coma Bony 
Plur. absolute. m3 OyIS) mSeE oni ony 
—— construct. "73 Das) bop abel eons Th 
— light Sf 71m 9p nin cnn 
grave Suf 02-97) DINE] Dybsyp Dy Nin DA 


Dual absolute. ody) my 
(shoes) (eyes) 
—— construct. "O09 Ae 





* Most of the Suffixes of the second and third persons plural are named 
grave Suffixes, because they bring down the tone as far as possible. E. g. 
the suffixes of those persons appended to the noun singular, i. e. D3, j2, on 
33, are called grave, (but not the suffixes D—, 172-); so the corresponding 


§91. PARADIGM OF NOUNS MASC. 171 


of Nouns masculine. 








[V. WV VI. 

b, a. b. cs Mn a8 Sts 
Ss ae 
(wise) (old man)(shoulder)(fore-court) —_ (king) (book) (sanctuary) 
Do ypy} ANSE TEDwTP 
“O27 “3p sn abn BD wp 

n209n D20pt poqsn oped DIO pDw Tp 
DMs OPT oven mba ogo Dt. 
“Oa FT "yan "bn | BO WH 
la Te sqm pO wp. 
ps5 O32 DEI OD o_O DO Ow IP 
meon oy" pan mba ovine 
ike. ch 2 eee 
Vi Vil VII. IX 
i. a. b, a. b c. 
Na aieratie eR emis ent othe Oe pT 
(fruit) (enemy) (name) (sea) (Mother) (law) (seer) 
5 IN oy ot Os "pM Ain 
ln aad 1 | 


DID OPN OM ose. | DDAN Odph agin 
oss oak oo niod om oniaxs op on 
(gezelles) DN ind mM mipN pn In 
DR cnt ow nies. pn Mn 
Doss Ds nine n"8) Oo niay Opn Oph 


pnd maw DEN iti 
(cheeks) itialance) (nostrils) (teeth-rows) 
Pi "EN Pi 





ones united to nouns plural, i. e. D3"—, j3"—, DM*—, iI, are called grave, 
(but not fa"). All the other suffixes throughout are named light; [a 
merely convenient technical expression]. 


172 § 91. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PARADIGMS 


Explanations. 


J. Par. I. has no vowel-changes in its stem-letters, and is 
presented here merely for the convenience of comparison. All 
nouns with vowels immutable belong here. (§ 25.) 

E.-g. (see § 25, 1), such as “"9, D1p, wand, vint; (§ 25, 2), DE, A; (ib. 
8), TDA, PUIY, PIN, Mw; (ib. 4), wap (for wixoB). And so alll the ver- 
bal nouns like those in § 83, Nos. 6. 7. 8. 13. 26. 27. 

2. Par. IL. comprises all nouns which have a mutable Qa- 
mets in the lust syllable, whether monosyllabic or having another 
previous but immutable vowel. 

E. g. 39, 3253, 92'va, and (only in the plur.) 5"w2. With the grave suf- 
fix D>— the Qamets is normally shortened, as in >"2>52; but in some words 
(monosyllabic), other short vowels are employed, in such a connection, to 
abridge the sound still more; e. g. 17, D277 (for 03>), BI, 039; see § 27, 
h. 2.'3. 

N. B. Those nowns which have a final (—) immutable, of course do not be- 
long here ; e. g. forms like zp, 2EP, (§ 83, No. 6. 13), DD as Part. of verb 
1D, etc. Moreover the derivates of verbs X> usually hold fast their (—); 
e. g. NPA, plur. const. "NIP. 

>, Par. IIL comprises those nouns, whose final vowel is im- 
mutable, while the penult has a mutable (=) or (=), (§ 26, 3). 

E. g. Din, FS8, DIS, aN plur. DN, 7a, jDt, {in the const. 
state, Ji237, 71751), in which last, the first two syllables of the abs. form flow 
into one in the construct. 

N. B. There are also nouns of the same appearance, whose (—) is immu- 
table; e. g. yr (for yy), 197 (for yanm), see No. 7 of § 83. So also 
wadw, plur. nwindus, Ex. 14:7. A number of nouns vary between the mu- 
table and immutable (—); e. g. 3120, see Lex. 

4, Par. IV. presents forms which are very frequent, viz. 
those which have Qamets mutable in the ultimate and penult syl- 
lables; one or both of which fall away, as the tone is removed 
one or two places, (comp. § 90, 2). 

Of the two examples (a, b) in the Par. the latter has a Guttural for its 
first letter, which has a special influence on the form of the const. plural. 
Other examples: 371, 123, with Gutt. DUN, IP7. 

The same analogy is followed by nouns with mutable (-) in 
the last, and (-) in the penult, syllable of the form >2p. 


E. g. 33>, "20,20, 329. But it should be noted, that some nouns of 
this kind take, in the const, state of the sing. number, a Segholate form ; 


§ 91. OF NOUNS MASCULINE. 173 


e. g. 32%, const, D2¥, (also 7>¥, 2 Sam. 16:13); and so “i, const. "25, Deut. 
31: 16; “3, const. 22 and “3B, (comp. "35 and 735, § 83, No. 10, 11). In 
won (= xn), and wp co N28), both of the vowels (—) are immuta- 
ble; (see § 83, No. 6). 

&. The structure of Par. V. can be considered only as a va- 
riety of the preceding. 'The (-—) of the second syllable here, is 
subject to the same changes as the (—) there, excepting that in 
the const. sing. jRi stands ise the normal 4p. 


A few nouns here, (as in Par. IV.), have a Segholate form in the const. 
state; e. g. IMD, const. HD; WTR, const. "74; W2, const. F74 (all three for 
the normal 52, "75, 772). Seldom (yet sometimes) both forms coexist in 
the const. state; e. g. 132, const, 12>, Ex. 4: 10, and 525, Is. 1: 4; Dy, 
const. 572 and 543. 

Rare exceptions aré forms like “j2>, Gen. 49: 12; bax, Ps. 35: 14; both 
before Maqqeph. Examples of the first kind, moreover, are. Sn", jou, 
3aw, const. SAY, WEP, ete. 

Nore. Some nouns of this form hold fast their (—) in the const. plural ; 
e. g. 72, Plur. const. "229; and so "23x, “rraw, "N20, "¥en. 

G. Par. VI. comprises the large class of the so-called Srco- 
LATE Forms, (§ 33, No. 11). The structure of these has this 
peculiarity, viz. that before suffixes, and in the const. state of the 
Plural and Dual, they appear in their original monosyliabic 
state. In the Plur. absolute, however, they are anomalously 
formed, inasmuch as they take (—) under the middle radical, and 
Sheva under the first; e. g. 423, plur. 0°29. 

In general these forms Bhustwite three classes, viz. (1) Those 
with A in the first syllable. (2) With &. (8) With O. The 
derivates of the regular verb are sounded as a. b. ¢. in the Para- 
digm. Those with a Guttwral in the last syllable, like d. e. f. 
Under g. h. are examples of derivates from stems ‘3 and *5. 
Under 7. is a derivate of 54>. (Comp. § 84, IV, No. 11. V, No. 
11.) Particulars follow: 

(1) In the form 52% (for 73%), the original (—) appears when a suffix is 
appended, as 72>"2; also in pause, e. g. D3, in pause pq> (Pattah prolong- 
ed); in like manner with m— local (§ 88, 1), as in Hsy. The Seventy write 
names like dat, np5, as 486, "Taped. Only the word rs always sounds, 
with the article, y280; and in like way the derivates of 13, as mia. The 
original monosyllabic form shows itself in 83. Finally, the Seghol i in these 
forms is often unaffected by the pause-accents, as 22> pry, bp, DIP; 
but often, also, it is otherwise, as 552, 28, 394, which is even usual when 
a Guttural concurs, but frequent also without one. 


174 § 91. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PARADIGMS 


It appears, moreover, that there are a number of nouns, apparently of 
this class, which seem either to have % for their ground- vowel, or else to 
have shortened the a into 7 (§ 27, n. 3), or perhaps to vacillate toward the 
form "BO; e. g. "3p, (in pause 2), with suff. “ap, plur. const. “3p; 
so 72S, "202; TRB, "2; PIE, "pis; nai, “mat. Some nouns exhibit 
both methods; e. g. 325, ">" Hos. 1: 2 and be Is. 57: 4. 

When the third stem- me is a Guttural, in such forms as 722, Pattah 
takes the place of the final helping vowel; e. g. 551, 32 .—When the second 
is a Guttural, then the form becomes like "33 (see in Par. d.), m3; and 
rarely do these forms assume the usual Seghol in them, like D3, so gene- 
ral is the union of (—) with Gutturals. In such a case, the normal suffix 
form, (like “D72), may be employed in these nouns second Guttural; as 
~am>; but the const. plur. always runs as %>m2, "72, (corresponding to 
"2272). | , 

(2) The forms "5D, M3 (lett. 6. e.) take for their first vowel, when the 
first letter is a Guttural, a(—) instead of their (—), both in the suff. state sing., 
and in the plur. const.; e. g. 32, "Day, “b39. The form om shows the 
original shape of this class of wera The local n= appended does not 
change the Tsere of the forms; e. g. W25p, from D4p. Other examples 
of the form in general are: 020, "733 , yen. 

(3) The form 5p (lett. c.) sometimes takes (—) in its first syllable, when 
in the suffix-state, as Dh, iba, Ps. 150: 2; but this is not frequent.— 
Moreover, such a form as pabyp may be found in words without Gutturals ; 
e. g. 720P (from 2¥P ), Hos. 13: 14.—The form dpb (lett. 2) sometimes va- 
ries from the model, when it has a suffix; e. g. S525 (for 428), Is. 1: 31, 
(not from >35); and so tah (for W9Nn), Is. 52: 14, see the normal form in 
1 Sam. 28: 14. Comp. § 62, n. 4. 

In the plural absolute usage varies. Most nouns of this form, with or 
without a Guttural, take (—) under the first radical, e. g. Dep, Nin j— 
but many employ (—) in the same position; as "75, pips; m4, os. 
The const. plur. form also varies here, in its first owe e.g. BAT (rom 
—Qam. Hhatuph); but also as 720, "229. Two words are anomalous in 
the plur. abs., viz. 2°83 (qd-dha-shim—with Qam. Hhat.), and D7w7 (sho- 
ra-shim—id.) from wy. The first of these, with the article, reads DYOIPF. 
(See § 9, n. 2). The word dk, in the plur., exhibits a Syriasm, viz. pybnk 
(for DYDAN, § 23, 4, n. 2); with Prefix prep., as D°>5NAa (bo°-). The n- 
local, does not affect the Hholem ; e. g, M25. 

(4) After the same analogy are declined those kindred forms, whose only 
full vowel is between the last two radicals, (§ 83, No. 10). E. g.02u, with 
suff, "220; Inf. const. bop, "2op; 328, "320, (and so generally in the 
Inf., without a Daghesh Enea in the third radical—differing from the usage 
in nouns, as "D>72). 

(5) The derivates from the stems \3 and "3, are the only ones which 


§ 91. oF NOUNS MASCULINE. 175 


change their form in the const. state, inasmuch as they contract the diph- 
thongal av and ay, into 6 and é, (§ 24, 2. b. and note*); e. g. mya = mavth, 
mauth, contracted 7a; and so mB bayth, baith, m°2. The F= local does 
not contract the form, as Hn2, HM (except in the const. state, which is as 
mmz). Some nouns of this species, which contract in the sing., in the 
plur. give back the consonant-power to the Quiescents; as “iW, pl. o"U ; 
sas, oS; pr, opr. 

(6) The Segholates of the stem > are properly of three kinds, viz. with 
a, e, and o for ground vowels, (§ 84, V.); e. g. ™, "7d, "2m; which (in 
pause) are developed, as "", “>, sDh 5 and again in a suff, state, as ™"N, 
“2, ">. In the plur. and dual, ox, Dvn> (dual), o>n. Some of 
these nouns, in the plural, take an & in the room of the (*) stem-letter, (see 
§ 24, 2. c); e.g. 93%, DNS; "NP, DNNP. 

4, Par. VII. comprises the nouns with mutable (-) in their 
last syllable; and these may be either monosyllabic, or have a 
preceding immutable vowel. Here belongs all the Pres. Parti- 
ciples in Kal of the form >¥P, (but not of >ep), also Part. in Piel 
and Hithpael, the form 5p (adjective or noun, see § 83, No. 9), 
and several other words. 


E. g. such as >p2, 3342, STIS, ete. But there are various departures, 
here, in the const. state, from the normal form in the Paradigm. (a) Some 
nouns const. take (—) here, instead of (=); as 780%, const. 5BO2; specially 
when Gutturals are present, as Mava, Mara. (b) Before a suff. occur also 
forms like 7>—2, or FNOD; or even us WIZ. (c) In the plur. abs., more- 
over, several nouns, (not monosyllabic like 5% in the Par.), preserve the (—) 
of the final syllable; e. g. Hwbv, o>npe. 

§§. Par. VIII. comprises all words together, which double 
the last radical, when any formative accession is received. By, 
this doubling, the last syllable is sharpened, and the vowel of 
the same becomes short, ($27, 1). As to the syllables which 
precede, they are treated according to general principles and the 
nature of the case. 

E. g. bon, orb%a, "boa; WIN, DrEpIN; Dyn, Oobabs. To this Par. be- 
long words of Hearty all the other forms; so that one cannot decide from 
the appearance of a word in the sing. absolute, whether it belongs here or 
not. He must reason from the etymology, or from the development of the 
word. 

Acvording to etymology, there belong to this class, (a) ll derivates of 
stems 23, (§ 84, IL); as 53, 18, pr, 422, ete., and such primitives as follow 
this analogy, as 5° sea, "1 mountain, UN fire. (b) Contracts, which suppress a 


176 § 91. EXPLANATIONS OF THE PARADIGM. 


letter ; as DN (for 42%, § 19, 2), with suff. 2X; m2 (for M23), with suff, "M2; 
ny (for m3), plur. Dm, mins. (c) Denominatives which end in *— , specially 
patronymics and gentilicia, as H°1>, O77; although more abridged forms 
of such often occur, as D759, B23. (d) Derivates of the regular verb (§ 83) 
present the following forms: No. 10, yt. 14, ywrve, Tema. 15, PON, 
238, plur. D52222. 21, box. 36, >aND, "2OND, now, plur. HyaD4n. 

~ Forms like these, in other cases, form a plural without the reception of a 
Daghesh forte; and the words above make only an exception to a general 
principle. See in the Lex, 

Before suffixes whose union-vowel is only (—), viz. such as }-, 03—, the 
Daghesb forte may be omitted; the vowel, however, is commonly the same, 
except that pm takes short 6, as #pn. 

Those words which have (—) in the main syllable, either retain this, or 
substitute short Hhireq; e. g. 39, 0°29, but also as MB, "MB. 


9. Par. 1X. comprises the derivates of the stem >, (§ 84, 5), 
which end in 5—; e. g. 585, 5872, etc. The vowel of the first 
syllable in this class of words, is rregtad according to the princi- 
ples already laid down, and only the final "= comes under con- 


sideration here. ‘This is treated in much the same manner as 
in Verbs ->. 


Inasmuch as the ending H— here stands in the room of "—, so this origi- 
nal form returns, whenever suffixes are attached. In consequence of this, 
the suffixes of the singular, having (") before them, assume the same form 
as to appearance, which the plural suffixes have. Thus 7°02"2 thy covering, 
(not plur.), Is. 14: 11; 7>2p9 thy kine, Is. 30: 23; srNva thy visage, (fem. 
suff), Cant. 2: 14; pm arya visage, Dan. 1: 15. Gen. 41: 21 3 we, his do- 
mg, 1 Sam. 19: 4; "2572 my kine, Ex. 17: 3; and perhaps the same, [i. e. the 
singular], in "w>, my Maker, Job 35: 10. 

On the other hand, suffixes are not unfrequently annexed to nouns of 
this class by a removal of the ending 5-, (as the Par. shows); e. g. 53" 
from 27 thy herd, Gen. 30: 295; snp his herd, Gen. 31: 18.—In the plural, 


(after the analogy of restoring the Yodh radical), the Part. in Pual, p“rr22, 
sing. M7729, and so "W272, see Is. 25: 6. 


§ 92. 
Change of Vowels in the formation of feminine Nouns. 

1. By appending the fem. termination 5~, (§ 79, 2), the same 
changes are produced in masc. nouns, as are brought about by 
the light-suffixes which begin with a vowel, because the tone is 
affected in the same manner, i. e. is removed one place. 


§ 92. CHANGE OF VOWELS IN FEMININES. 177 


E. g. 
Dec. Mase. Fem. Dec. Mase. Fem. 
T, dio— now, VI. pa — eee; SO — HN INe; IY — hey, 
I]. 8¥i2—ANxin. bok— MdsN; WI— IVI; TY — Ps; 
IIT, >is3— ndisa. (mb) — nd. 


TV. =p2— map. VII. bup—nbup. 
Ve. opY— pr. «VII. 0 an— an; ph— npn; ta—nn. 
IX. nzp— Hyp. 


2. The ending n> produces the same shortening of the vow- 
els, in the Ssenatid syllable, as } > produces * e.g. TIDY, MIB; 
"an, nqan. But the last syllable is variously modified, i in or- 
der to receive the Segholate-ending m-. 


(a) The (—) and (-) go into (—); as DRin, nahin. 

(b) The (—) either remains, or goes into (—); as Wan, nvan; “a, mh. 

(c) The vowels usually immutable, go into their ea ekahe mutable 
ones; e. g. Win, fem. NYS; WWsUN, fem. both MoStiN and HyyawN; IA, 
fem. M738 and M"34. 

Thus three forms of the fem. Segholates arise, viz. ">= (for 
m-- and n--), m->, and n>, which correspond to the mase. 
Segholates in Par. VI. of §91. The ending m= for the Guttu- 
ral forms, changes the preceding vowel into (—), whatever it 
may be; e. g. 277, fem. mBTi2; 39, fem. M25; (Mm), fem. nmi. 

Nore I. A peculiar form m-- (for M-=), see above, § 73, n. 3. Of a 
different fashion, on the other hand, is M1>5 (for 734), Gen. 16: 11. Judg. 
13: 5, 7, i. e. it resembles 527 compared with 2%. But as the form in 
question, in all the three places where it occurs, stands connected with the 
second pers. fem. of the Perfect, it may perhaps receive its shape in the way 
of intended resemblance to that form of the Perf., (a kind of alliteration); 
for the third pers. fem. of this word is regular (m5), Gen. 17: 19. Is. 7: 14. 

Nore 2. When the ending n= is joined to masculines of the VIII. De- 
eepsian, the doubling of the last ua is intermitted, as it consists not 


but fem. M257258; and so 4 pikes Ag “hes Gon "es 





* This seems to be against the general rule in § 27, 3, inasmuch as the tone is not 
thrown forward at all by the ending n—. But this seeming exception may be ex- 
plained by the fact, that this n= is an abridgment of the old fem. n— with the tone; ; 
see § 79, 2. 


23 


178 § 93. PARADIGMS OF THE FEMININES. 


| § 93. 
Paradigms of the Feminines. 


These are much more simple than the masculines, because, 
in their formation, they have already undergone most of the 
changes which the forms allow, (§ 90, 3). 

E. g. the feminines of Dec. Ill, as 42173; of VII, as n>up; of VIII, as 
man, 132, pM; all belong to Par, 4 of the Feminines. 

In the plural, there is no practical difference between the light 
and the grave suffixes; for all of them attach to the construct 
form. 

The following Table or Paradigm shows how the different classes of the 


fem. nouns are declined, or varied to suit the nature of the case; the Ex- 
PLANATIONS follow: 


§ 93. PARADIGMS OF THE FEMININES. 179 


A. B. 
— See 
(no yvowel-changes.) a. b. Cs 
Sing. absolute. miD10 mw no mpis 
(horse) (year) (sleep) (righteousness) 
— _ construct. No nw nw nes 


— light Sy. nd} NW NWA 
— grave Suf. DIMOND DIMW oynw Dompts 
Plur. absolute. mIDId ni nit mipts 
— construct. THO mw nw miptx 
— with Suf. minnow nips 


Dual absolute. pny DONS 
(lips), (two sides) 
— construct. npw "AND 
C. D. 
TN er, 
a. b, C. a. b. 
Sing. absolute. F252 MEW mam mpi mdsds 
(queen) bahar (desert) (sucker) (scull) 


‘os 


— construct. nada NEV naw npii mda 
—light Suf. 735 MBI NIN Apa nro 
— grave 8. oonstn Dane p2n2qn Danpih osnbsba 
Plur. absolute. mista mip an nian nipay nibs 353 
— construct. nistn mipan nian mip nidads 
— with Suff.” “ainda Minn nia apy snibas 


Dual absolute. SADT? DAP? mnbsn baw 
(thighs) (double (cymbals) (chains) ; 
embroidery) 


— construct. "27 


180 § 93. EXPLANATIONS OF FEM. PARADIGMS. 


Explanations. 


1. Par. A. needs no explanation, for the vowels and conso- 
nants are immutable. Par. 6. comprises those feminines which 
have a mutable (-) or (~) before the fem. ending 4-. 

E. g. O8P, HEP, NPIS, Tayvim; and consequently it comprises the fem. 
forms of Dec. II. IV. V. masc., and several under Dec. IX. 

When the penult Qamets or Tsere is preceded by a Sheva, 
(§ 26, 4), and either of those vowels falls away by means of de- 
clension or suffixes, a new closed syllable arises, with a proper 
short vowel in the room of the Sheva. 

See mptx in the Par. (lett.c). In like manner, 4223, const. meas may, 
spay. 

Many nouns, mca form Segholates for the fem. construct 
and suffix here, in M->, M==, (§ 87, 2. b. § 92, 2); and not unfre- 
quently the two forms (the normal and the Segholate) coexist. 

E. g. "327272, const. state M2592, "M2222; TINS, MIRSM; onpwa, 
rnin, sonetia. 

An immutable (=) penult have all nouns like MYpa, HADI, (§ 83, No. 25, 
28), const. MUpPa, M7121 —Further, an immutable (— -) have most of such ver- 
bals as are of the form } MIay, rm, (§ 83, No. 18); while some admit of 
change here, e. g. PNW, (§ 83, No. 2). The Lex. gives due information in 
these cases. 

2, Par. C. comprises the feminine forms of the Segholate 
nouns of Dec. VI. masc. above, and therefore has an analogy 
with them. 

E. g. As 372 forms a plural 5°32, so in the fem. here we find (~ +) un- 
der the middle stem-letter, as nisba; so MwI>, Miva>. One must be on 
his guard here not to confound hese nouns with others of the like forms, 
but not derivates from Segholates ; in particular the derivates of 4>, of the 
form M1372, AXV2, the masculines of which are M}x72, ONVvV2. Here the 
first syllable is immutable. 

3. To the Par. D. belong the Segholate forms which have 
arisen from the addition of the fem. ending mz, (§ 92, 2); which 
correspond quite accurately to the masc. Segholates, (§ 81, Par. 
VL) 

Other examples besides these in Par. D, are M7399, nvix, nSve. 
Forms here like "56 are rare; one is MUR, with suff. "mwx. The same 
flexion, however, is found here, in those Segholates in r— which stand 


§ 94. LIsT OF IRREGULAR NOUNS. 181 


for n-= ; e. g. M73 (for n73), and thence "M73; and so na, "M3, (from 
the mase, 3%); and m3 with suff. sounds "nyT10. 

The plural of these nouns is often constructed as from a co- 
existing form in 4 or 4—, (Par. B). E. g. mAiz, ninnis; 


PS 


nnzin, ningin; myfeis, nisms. 


§ 94. 
List of irregular Nouns. 


¥, A number of irregular flexions of nouns, which for the 
most part respect only particular words, or a few analogous ones, 
may be most conveniently arranged in an alphabetical list. 
They are the more important, because the irregularities in ques- 
tion concern, as is usual in other languages, words that are of 
very common occurrence. 

2, The greater part of these irregularities arises from the 
circumstance, that the const. state or the plural of these nouns 
is borrowed from another and different form from that of the 
abs. singular. The principle here developed is like to that in 
§77. Comp. in Greek, yur7, yuraixds ; vag, Vdaros. 


ax father, (instead of 3, as if from 53),* const. "AX, with suff. "aN, 
way, DS"aX, plur. Miax, (§ 86, 4). 

ms brother, const. "78, suff. "48, FAN, O27; plur. const. "7X, O5°me. 
All ‘these forms follow the analogy of >, as if ms were for Fins , (from 
mmx). But the plur. abs. is O78, with a Dag. implicitum (§ 22, ay, as if 
from MMm&, thence “GN, FAN, WAN, etc. For ims stands always "nx, 
(see § 27. n, 2. b). 

Tm one, (for 748 with Dag. implicitum, § 22, 1, comp. § 27. n. 2. b), const. 
state IA, fem. MM for MIN (see § 19,2), in pause MAX. Once 4n, (by 
aphaeresis, § 19, 3), Ezek. 33: 30, as in Chaldee and Syriac. The plural 
makes B"IMN some. 

mink sister, (a contracted word for mInX), from a masc. SAX = "Ay; Plur. 
mins, suff "nin, (from a sing. 77x, fem. of *my); also nin, (as if 
from ‘ sing. AR). 

wx man, is a weakened form out of WX, (§19, 5. n.). Plur. rarely 
pays, but commonly pw (from WX), const. "IN, Comp. FEN. 

M28 maid, plur. Nimvay, const. MivaX, with M consonant. Comp. in Ar- 
amaean, }73%, their fathers, etc. 





* Above, in § 81, 2, it is mentioned, that these nouns, although primitive, always 
follow the analogy of verbals, and are so treated in Grammar. For the flexion, it is 
necessary to know after what class of the irregular verbs these primitives are mod- 
elled. 


182 §94. List OF IRREGULAR NOUNS. 


MWR wife (for mix fem. of Wax), const. nvix (fem. of wrx, and for. 
Muy), with suff “mw, FAWN. Plur. ow, shortened from ow. 

ma house, (probably weakened from M33 (M23), see § 19, 5, n., (like m1 
out of m2), from M22 to build, as douog from déuw; const. ma. Plur. 
pena (for o°M22), from a kindred form m3 for nz5, like na for 23. 

2 son, (Ma from 433), const. “ja, seldom “42, once "33, (according to 
§ 88, 3. a), Num. 24: 3,15; with suff. "22, 432 © Plur. 52, (as from 43 
for 7)3), const. "22. 

ma daughter, (for m22 fem. of }2, comp. $19, 2), with suff. "ma (for "M23) . 
Plur. mi22, (like 0°22 sons, from sing. 33), const. ni33. 

pn father-in-law, 9772; and fem. nan mother-in-law, comp. HX, NIMS. 

pis day, dual ova", plur, Da", va", (as from 52 for 79). 

"bd vessel, plur. 5°22, (as from 52 for M22). 

pv water, plur. (comp. § 86 b, 1. n. 2), const. "2, also in the reduplicate 
form 7272, with suff p3"72"2. 

“ny city, plur. OM, "72, (from "3, which occurs in proper names). 

mB mouth, (for ANB, from ANB to breathe), const. "2 (for 75), suff. "B my 
mouth, 795, "2. 

UN head, (for 4x5), plur. WN, (for DWN, § 23, 2). 


§ 95. 
Numsers ; (a) Cardinals. 


J, The Cardinals from 2—10 are, in Hebrew, nouns with 
an abstract meaning, like trias, decas, zevtas ; which, however, 
are also used adverbially, ($118); only 748 and Mx (one, see 
§ 94) are construed as adjectives. ‘The other numbers have a 
masc. and fem. form, both properly of the like meaning, but by 
usage so separated, that the masc. form is joined with fem. 
nouns, and the fem. form with masc. nouns. Only in the dual, 
pr, oomnw, does the gender accord with that of the noun. 

The following Table presents the Units, and their respective 
forms: 


§95. NUMBERS: CARDINALS. 183 


Connected with the Mase. Connected with the Fem. 

Absol. Constr. Absol. Constr. 
Bae is sms nnn nix 
2 Oe "20 onw* ne 
ea ao 
4. na NPAT p28 «VAT 
5 mga = onwan von. wan 
6 ee ney vw wy 
7 Tew  nyaw \ 2 = 
& oma mibo mot maw 
9 ometin  nigwin vain oun 
1. myeZ me a 


This same peculiarity, in regard to the connection of the gender, extends 
essentially, with regard to these numbers, to all the Semitic languages. It 
may be explained on the ground, that originally the numbers 2—10 were 
abstract nouns, like Sexes, trias, etc. Consequently they might have nouns 
either of the masc. or fem. form. Since the fem. is the leading form in ab- 
stracts, it was applied to the leading gender of nouns, i. e. the masc. ; and 
then, as a consequence of this, the other or masc. form of the numerals 
was combined with fem. nouns; a discrepancy [in respect to usual con- 
cord], which only the usus loqguendi could sanction and establish.; The ex- 
ceptions to this general principle are very few; e. g. O%3 miu, Gen. 7: 
13. Ezek, 7: 2. Job 1: 3, [fem. with fem.]. 

Remarks. The simple numerals are cértainly very old words, and they 
are essentially the same in all the Semitic languages. It is from this cir- 
cumstance, that the argument is urged for the kindred relation of the Sem- 
itic and Indo-Germanic languages; inasmuch as the numbers 1—7, at 
first sight, have a great resemblance. With ww (properly ww, as the 
Arab. and Aethiopic show), one compares the Sanscrit shdsh; old Pers. 
esvas ; Greek é&, for sex (the Latin expression of it); old Slavic shesty. To 
32U (seven) is compared the Sanse. saptan ; old Pers. haptan; new Pers. 
haft ; Gr. éxta; Lat. septem; German sieben, [Eng. seven]. To w>w (Aram. 








* This form comes from h7n2¥ abridged; hence the Dag. lene in the nh. Some 
derive it from D°7 3s, with prosthetic 8, § 19, 4. 

t In the vulgar dialects of the Arab. and Ethiopic the fem. form of the numerals 
is predominant. This is employed in Heb. also, when the abstract idea of number 
is designated, Gen. 4:15. Feminine forms are also employed, to designate collectives 
and generic ideas of multitude, § 105, 2. 


184 §95. NUMBERS: CARDINALS. 


mm) is compared the Sansc. tri, fem. tisri; old Pers. thri, fem. tisaro; Gr. 
rots; Lat. tres; [Eng. three]. So 7m (one), Sanse. eka ; wan (five), 
Sanse. pantshan, Gr. mévte, Lat. quinque; 3298 (four), Lat. quatuor ; pan 
(two), Aram. jm, Sanse. dua; Lat. duo, etc, But a strenuous analysis 
makes all these phenomena doubtful. Against the idea of near relation is. 
it, that D125, whan (prop. the fist, the five fingers), and also “> (prop. con- 
nection, host) , may be respectively referred to 72% to repeat ; to rar to col- 
lect together, to contract, (comp. YP, ¥DP of like import); and to "W2 to 
bind, to connect, (comp. "OX, “WP, etc.). We cannot point out so facile an 
etymology for the other numbers; [but this proves little against the suppo- 
sition of a Hebrew origin, inasmuch as the words are so old, and we have at 
present so little of the ancient living Heb. language}. 

2, The numbers from 11—19 are formed by placing the 
units, without a copula, before the number ten; yet without 
amalgamating them into one word. The Units, in this case, 
stand before the fem. numerals (with a masc. form), in the 
const. state; which here, however, merely indicates close con- 
nection, and not a proper Genitive, (§ 114). 

The three first numbers are here subjoined, which exhibit 
some variations from ihe general principles ; viz. 


Mase. Fem. 
i mieby TIN m0? NON 
wy omy" Tyme my 
er 702 mt myo? 2 Pe 
sep ayer nw 
13. qepnwde Tae) abu 


The last number affords the model for all the remainder. These 
composite numbers have no const. state, and are used only adverbially. Sel- 
dom are even the masc. units (with fem. form) placed in the const. state; as 
swe muan (= 15), Judg. 8: 10; “wy mriaw (= 18), Judg. 20: 25. 


3, The tens from 30—90 are expressed by the plural form 
of the corresponding units. 


* The etymology of this word is obscure. Rabbi Jona explains it by “AY 7D 
mwy unto twelve, i.e. near to twelve; an expression like undeviginti, which is less 
applicable here. Besides, this mache properly suit only the fem., while the mase. 
is also employed. If the derivation of »mw» were from the source which he sup- 
poses, must it not be written »0» ? Others explain it thus: Suppose something, i. e. 
added to ten, from mB» to suppose. [Fanciful enough.] 


Namely: swe) 30, oa s 40, psu 50, nviwi 60, mwa) 70, novia) 
80, n»vein 90. : 

Only twenty is 2°22 (plur. of wz), These composite tens 
are of the common gender, and admit no const. state. When 
units are joined with the tens, (like 21, 82, etc.), the ancient He- 
brew puts them first, (as one and twenty); while the later He- 
brew arranges them in exactly the reverse order. 


See and comp. Num. 3: 39. 26: 14. 1 Chron, 12: 28. 18:5. The copula 
is always expressed between them.—As to the plural forms D°-Jo?, O23, 
D"2un, which come from the Segholates "Wy, 2324, 28m, they are not 
normal, (for the normal fornis would be n™w2, OVIY, OL), but are 
shortened in the same manner as the const. form would be, 

The remaining numbers are My72, fem. const. DX72 100, dual DrAy’ (for 
pry) 200, plur. nino hundreds ; bk m. 1000, dual nibbs 2000, ‘plur. 
prpby nei>y) 3000 etc.; 4324, in later writings Mizq, Ni2% (multitude) 
10, 000, dual psmias 20,000. 

Nore 1. The dual form of some of the units is occasionally found, and 
has the meaning of our word fold in sevenfold, etc. E. g. D5A225N four- 
fold, 2 Sam. 12:16; BH 2he3U seven-fold, Num. 15: 24. Ps. 79: 12. Besides 
those plurals which mark the collective tens, occurs the plur. of one, i. e. 
DTI, some, same; also MINvy decades, (not decem), Ex. 18: 21, 25. 

Nore 2. The suffixes to numbers are properly Genitives after them, as in 
the case of nouns. In translating we make these suffixes pronoun-adjectives 
in the Nom. case; e. g. D>mw>u) (lit. the three-i-ty of you), we express by 
you three. 


§95, NUMERALS: CARDINALS. 185 


§ 96. 
Numspers; (b) Ordinals. 

The Orpinats from 2—10, are formed from the cardinals 
by appending *~, (§ 85. No.5). Commonly (*-) is also in- 
serted in the preceding syllable. 

E. g. 928, (2G, WD, Wen and wan, WY, way, yaw, ww, 
“vy. For number one, on the other hand, is employed pide (for Five) ; 
which comes from wn, the head, beginning, etc.; with the ending i, 
(§ 85. No. 4.) Feminines here have the ending mn, seldom m>-, and in- 
dicate part, portion; as M772 a fifth part; meane> and m=ey. Other 
forms occasionally have this meaning; e. g. wah fifth part, 935 and 339 a 
fourth part. 

N. B. In regard to the manner in which the other relations of numbers 
are expressed, they have no special forms adapted to them; and § 118 in 
‘the Syntax gives the requisite information. 

24 


186 § 97. GENERAL VIEW OF THE PARTICLES, 


CHAPTER IV. 


OF THE PARTICLES. 


§ 97. 
General View. 


¥. The Parricies, which in general express the associated 
limitations of speech, the specific relations of words between 
themselves, and the mutual relations of sentences to each other, 
have mostly the form of nouns; but some of them have forms 
borrowed from pronouns and verbs, (§ 30, 4); and only a few 
can with certainty be regarded as primitive. 

2. Particles not primitive may be classed, in respect to their 
rise, in the following manner: (1) Those borrowed from other 
parts of speech, whose forms they adopt, either of the noun, pro- 
noun, or verb, while more or less of their original meaning is 
retained, as the nature of the case demands.* Or, (2) They 
are derived from other parts of speech in two ways; viz. (a) By 
the addition of an adverbial formative syllable, as 2% daily 
from pis day, (§ 98,3). While this is frequent, yet still more 
frequent, (b) Is the formation of particles by abridgment. But 
this is sometimes carried so far, that the origin of the words is 
obscured. 

E. g. 38 only (prop. certainly, surely). Comp. in German, gen out of gegen, 
and ultimately from Gegend; seit from Seite, etc.; [Eng. ne’er for never.] 
Farther still do the Greek and Latin go, in such abridgments; e. g. a0, ab, 
a; é,ex,e; Lat. ad, French a; Lat. aut, ou, Ital.o ; Lat. super, Ital. su. 
In some cases even several words are drawn into one; e. g. forsitan = fors 
sit an. In Chinese, most of the particles are verbs and nouns; e. g. iu, to 
give, also a sign of the Dative; 7, to use for one’s self, and also to, for ; 
néi, the inner part, also in. 

Most of all does this process of abridgment develope itself, 
when it is carried so far as to destroy the independent form of 
the word, and to cause that merely as a single consonant it 
should be prefixed to some other word; as, for example, in re- 








* Comp. the Latin verum, causd; German statt, anstatt ; weg, wegen; |Eng. way, 
away; side, besides; cause, because, etc.] 


98. ADVERBS. 187 
§ 


spect to the praeformatives of the Imperfect in verbs, (§ 47, 1. 2). 
In such a way, ?, coming from >x, is prefixed to words. 


That the curtailing of whole words, even to a single letter, is in accord- 
ance with the general usages of language, is clear from the fact, that the 
later Hebrew and Aramaean, (and so of other Semitic languages), practise 
in this way, both oftener and to a greater extent. So in the Hebrew, ahs 
first becomes *‘Y, then & in the latest books of the O. Test. ; and among the 
Rabbins the full form is rarely to be met with. In Chaldee, "7 goes later 
into 3; in new Arabic, we have hallag out of halvaqt, etc.; and so, in nu- 
merous cases, The analogy of the western languages, (as exhibited above), 
shows the same usage. Still, the most simple of all particles belongs to 
the most ancient epochs of the Hebrew, at any rate to the oldest monu- 
ments of the language. 

That particles, reduced to a single letter or syllable, should sometimes be 
obscure as to their etymology, is natural. In the mean time this is not fre- 
quent; and the general probability remains, that even such particles were 
originally derived in such a way as the others. 


& More seldom are particles formed by compounding seve- 
ral words. 

E. g. 33772 why, from 3952-2 how instructed = ti wodov. “I2>3 ex- 
cept, from >2 not, and “42 unto ; mbsab~a above, out of 72 from, > at, nbs 
upper part. But it is more common still, to write the component words 
separately; €. g. J2 "MN, "D FN, JDP 7D, ete. 


§ 98. 
Adverbs. 


1, As primitive adverbs we may regard the negatives x} not, 
7s there is not; also some particles of time and place, as 3% 
there, ™ then. 

At least we may consider this as the nearest standing point of the gram- 
marian, even if it be possible to trace the words to other roots, namely to 
pronominal ones. 

2, As forms of other parts of speech, which are employed 
adverbially without any further change, various classes occur: 
viz. 

(a) Nouns with prepositions ; as 4823, very much ; 12> only (prop. apart) ; 
with suff. "13> I only ; mb. within ; SnD together, unitedly. 

(b) Nouns in the Acc. (casus adverbialis, § 116), comp. Gr. tiv aeynv; & g. 
sk2 very much ; 0B& (cessation), no more; Di (this day), to-day ; sn 
(union) , together. In some of them, the noun-meaning is rare; e. g. 3°30 


188 § 98. aDVERBs. 


(circle), around. In others, it does not occur at all; “35 (length), long 
ago; i> (repetition), further, yet (continuative). 

(c) Adjectives, specially of the fem. (which corresponds to the neuter) ; 
as 52 righily, so, (prop. rectum); 2UN7 first, before; MBI, N24, multum, 
much, many, enough ; mind? wonderfully, (prop. mirabilibus, sc. modis); 
mnt, twice, MTT in a Jewish way, i. e. in the Jewish language. 

(d) Like the Inf. abs. specially in Hiphil ; (to be regarded as in the Acc., 
§ 128, 2); e. g. Man much, (prop. doing much). 

(e) Like Pronouns; e. g. My here, (prop. in this place). 

N. B. See a synopsis of the usual adverbs, and of their meaning, § 147. 

3. Other adverbs are made by the addition of the formative 
syllable 5~, (rarely 5-), to nouns. 

E. g. 5228 and D738 truly, from ja truth ; DIM gratis, without cause, from 
7 favour ; =)" daily, from Di" day; pRmB (for Bons) suddenly, from 2m 
the wink of an eye—Moreover these endings D— and D— are sometimes em- 
ployed in the formation of proper nouns, like 7i—, j=, (§ 83, No. 15); e. g. 
pints and 47975 hberation ; te) leader, from >5>. Adverbs of this class, 
therefore, may be considered as denominative nouns adverbially employed ; 
which alters nothing essential in the case. The meaning and analogy here 
are usually very plain. 

4., Adverbs are formed by curtailing longer words. 

E. g. 3&8 only, (properly only so, from j28, Chald. j°25, "25. Specially 
the F interrogative ; as N>t is it not? Dim is it even? from the fuller form 
bh, Deut. 32: 6. 

N. B. The punctuation of this may be 1, 4 (with Dag.) , 3 (without Dag.) , 
or 1; all these depending on the letter or vowel which follows; see 
Lex. 4 

Be piers adverbs which include a verbal idea, may take a 
pronoun-suflix ; usually this is a verbal suffix which has 5 epen- 
thetic. 

FE. g. es, he is extant ; "229%, I am not extant; ‘2298, he is not extant ; 
DTD, he is yet or still; 1>%, whereishe? And so of jm, F205, lo! see! (prop. 
here, here is), with verbal suffix, as "227, in pause "325 and “23%, behold me ! 
723; 2, 23m, in pause 532, 18); also Dp. 


§ 99. 
Prepositions. 
1. Most words which appear as prepositions, are, (a) Nouns 
in the Ace. and const. state ; or, (b) Nouns in the const. state pre- 
ceded by prepositions, specially the prefiz-ones. 


§ 100. prerix-PREPOSITIONS. 189 


(a) The preposition being in the const. state, the noun that follows is pro- 
perly in the Gen. ; and so it is designated in Arabic, So in the English: 
instead of evil; Lat. hujus rei causd. So “MX (hinder part), behind, after ; 
dun (side), near ; 372 (midst), between ; 123 and 723 (distance) , behind, round 
about ; mbt (removal), except ; j37 (design), on account of; >12 (front), be- 
fore, over against; 2 (part), from, out of; 733 (anterior part), before, over 
against ; 712 (continuance), while, during, until; >¥ (upper part), on, over ; 
n> (connection), also maz, nas>, with; mom (under part), under, instead of. 
Most of these are actually employed as nouns, 

(b) Construct nouns with prepositions are frequently employed as mere pre- 
positions ; e. g. "25> (in the sight of), before; "BD, "D> (after the mouth, i. e. 
command), in consequence of, according to ; >233 (on the occasion of), on ac- 
count of ; 72"2> (with the design), because of, on account of. 


2. Specially nouns that are used adverbially, are easily con- 
verted into prepositions. 

E. g. "33, PRS, OBNR2, (with nothing), without ; Ti>3 (in continuance), 
during ; "32, "32, (for the necessity), for, according to the measure of. 


§ 100. 
Of the Prefix-prepositions. 

1. Of the words already named, 72 from, out of, is frequently 
employed as a prefix-preposition ; but so that the } falls out, or 
rather assimilates (by a Dag.) with the next succeeding letter ; 
as "272, out of the forest. 

More precise particulars follow. The independent 4 usually stands only 
before the article; e. g. yNt 72; [when employed in other cases], it is 
particularly made use of before the feeble letters, as 18 j72, Jer. 44: 18; ya 
“22, 1 Chron, 5: 18, and elsewhere in the later books, as also in Syriac. 
Also there is a poetic form "22, (specially in Job). Commonly it takes the 
form “2 (with Dag. forte), which Dag. can be omitted only in case the let- 
ter that receives it is pointed with a Sheva, (§ 20, 3. b). Before Gutturals 
it becomes 72, (§ 22, 1); e.g. 59N2, 52. Before mitis2; as yim, warn, 
Gen. 14: 23. 

Three prepositions, by far the most common of all in Hebrew, 
are abridged down to a single consonant with a simple Sheva, 
(§ 97, 2); viz. 

2, in, on, with, from ™3, 73. 
>, to, towards, at, from >x. 
2, as, according to, from 42 .* 





* The derivation of > from by, and more remotely still, from a root which means 


190 § 100. pREFIX-PREPOSITIONS. 


Punctuation. (a) These prepositions of themselves have a simple Sheva. 
But this, according to § 28, 1, 2, is changed according to the letters and 
vowels which succeed it. E. g. "5, "IBD; "IN, "ND; and so before the 
feeble letters, in conformity with § 23,2 and § 24, 1a; e.g.} mann for HTD 
“jox> for “ard. 

(6) When put before the article, they usually cause it to be dropped, and 
take the vowel which belonged to it under themselves. See § 35, n. 2. 

(c) Immediately before a tone-syllable, either in.a monosyllabic word, or 
in a penacuted dissyllabie one, i. e. in the fore-tone syllable, they take (—), 
according to § 26, 3. This, however, is not uniformly the case, but only, (1) 
Before the Inf. mode of the forms just mentioned, as MM> to give, > to 
judge, 973> to bear children ; but not when the Inf. is before a Gen. noun, 
i. e. in a strictly const. state, as ma? , Num. 8: 19; natin, Judg. 11: 26. 
(2) Before many forms of pronouns ; e. g. M12, 51>, HID; MED as these ; 
moreover B22, O22, 022; 45, 0D, n>; see and comp. § 102, 2. (3) 
When a monosyllabic or penacuted dissyllabic word is very closely con- 
nected with the preceding word, and 5 comes between, it usually takes (-), 
and specially at the end ofa clause or sentence; e. g. map mp, 2 K. 10:21, 
brad pra j7a, Gen. 1:6. See Deut. 17: 8, where is a complete exhibition 
of the manner in which the punctuation of > at the end of a clause, differs 
from that in the preceding part of one. So, at the end, mid ; but before, 
moms mid, Jer. 34: 10. 

(4) To the interrogative 2 they are attached, by a (—) with a Daghesh 
forte following it; e. g. M22, M2D, mad » (Qamets because of the penult ac- 
cent). Comp. Vav consec, of the Imperf., § 48, b. 2. But before Gutturals, 
the last word is usually read 72>. 

Nore. Before the word 435%, (which has not its own proper vowels, but 
those of "258, see Lex.), these prepositions take such vowels as the latter 
word (7258) demands; e. g. mim, mina, and so mimv2; which are wont 
to be read "2583, "2582, "25N2. 

§ 101. 
Prepositions with Suffixes, and with Plural-forms. 
J. So far as the prepositions are originally nouns (§ 99), 


they are connected with pronouns in the same way as nouns 
are, i. e. the pronouns assume the same form which they take 


when they are noun-suflixes, ‘(§ 88, 1, 2). 


E. g. "28 (at my side), with me; "M8 (my nearness), with me; “MAM (my 
place), instead of me; like the Lat. mea causa, and the German meinetwegen. 





to approach, accessit, (Heb. and Aram, 71>, 815, adhaesit, se adjunwit, Arab. 1 [va- 
1a] accessit), is beyond a doubt. In respect to 3 from n°3,, °2, (lit. in the house, and 
thence in), see Ges. Lex. sub voce —> (from 52) properly means so; repeated as 
2—2, it means as —'so. 


§ 101. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 191 


Nore 1. The Prep. >8 with, (from 38), is distinguished by the punc- 
tuation from MX (Mix) the sign of the Ace. (§ 115, 1), when suffixes are an- 
nexed; e. g. the first is read thus: "MN, INN, DOAN, OMN; the last holds 
fast its original O for the most part, (but not always); as "M8, FOX, FOS, 
ink, ANN, VMS, OIMN, j2MN, OM& and Ham. Yet in the later books, 
viz. I. Il. Kings, io, ., and Ezek., m& with, assumes the same form as the 
other with O; as "MN with me, OPN with them, etc. 

Nore 2. The preposition 5> takes a (—) before 53— and th— by means 
of which the doubling of the 7 becomes. more audible ; bsa>, ory. In 
the first person, with "23 we find also "23. 

Nore 3. It is rare that verbal suffixes are joined with prepositiofis; yet 
sometimes it occurs; e. g. "Inmm, 2 Sam. 22: 37. 40: 48; (different in Ps, 
18: 37, 40, 48, "mnm), Hann, i 2: 21; and "2532, Ps. 139: 11, (here be- 
cause of the rhyme with spawn). But the suffix may in these cases be ex- 
plained by the fact, that the direction whither is on the mind; e. g. "25mm 
under me, 2 Sam., etc.; MINI, in place of it, (“he put flesh in the place of 
it”); "2422, around me. 

2. age suffixes are added to the prefiz-prepositions, spe- 
cially when the suffixes are short, here and there occur cases of 
prolonging the prepositions, in order to give more body and 
steadfastness to them. Hence it comes, that the appended sy]l- 
lable %2 is connected with >; with 72 is joined a second 72 by 
Daghesh forte (722 —= a parte); in connection with 2 and>,a 
long vowel (-) is employed. 

The following table, will be of use to the learner: 


(a) > with Suffixes : 


Sing. Plur. 
t "> to me. "23 fo us. 
m. 72, 52>, in pause 5? nab 
2. £2 to thee. rob, mesh ! to you. 
m. %> to him. bine, M22, poet. ia>* 
* > to them. 
f. #2 to her. eT 


_In the same way 3, excepting that the third pers. plur. reads 
ong, 52, /. 03. 
(6) > with Suffixes: 
Sing. Plur. 
a I “eat as L ni2D as we. 
9, } ° Wi22 n22, seldom D>%2> 


! as thou. ! as you. 


192 § 101. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 


Sing. Plur. 
m. 22D as he. DMD, OAD, pti l 
3 q " + 4-as theys 
f. i122 as she. — — — § 


(c) 72 with Suffixes: 


Sing. Plur. 
e “272, poet. "72, "72 from me. "232 from us. 
m. 22, in pause 7372 mp7 
9 ; ie Sree i from thee. " ¢Srom you. 
( ™- niga, poet. sn72, By2, poet. 
mre from him. br ¢ from them. 
| fi. nP22 from her. rie 


Expranations. * It has frequently been asserted of i) that it stands 
for the sing. >; and various attempts in divers ways have been made to 
explain it. Some analogy may be found in m2>upM for dupm, § 47. n. 3. 
Actually it is employed only in a collective sense ; e. g. Gen. 9: 26, (in refer- 
ence to Shem and the Semitae); Ps. 28:8. 73:10, (in reference to the peo- 
ple); Is. 43: 15, (in reference to 558, 58, which the Seventy render #e0é) ; 
Is. 53: 8, (in reference to the foregoing init, his generation, i. e. he and the 
like of him). 

The same is the case with ‘2522 for o77>2, Job 20: 23, (in reference to 
the ungodly, who, in the whole description (vs. 5—20), constitute a collec- 
tivum, and in fact the description begins, in v. 5, with the plur. p(w). 
So in Job 27: 23, we have "DS in reference to B°4°"3 in v. 13. More 
striking is \7">2 in Job 22: 2, in reference to "33 man. But this word is 
clearly a collective. 

+ Not i>, which means therefore. 

t The ‘3 is here put for "—, and has its ground barely in euphony. 

Remarks. The syllable vo in "2723, (Arab, 82 = M2 what or which, 
and so lit. according to that which I, i. e. as 1), is appended to the three pure 
prefixes, 2, 2, es in poetry, without suffixes; so that 122, 122, ib, ap- 
pear as independent words, and of course are prolonged ones. Poetry is 
distinguished in such matters from prose, i.e. by its prolonged forms. In 
respect to 772, however, it has chosen the contrary shorter forms, like to the 
Syriac. 

With suff, 72 makes 42472 for 197 ya72, (§ 19, 2. Rem.) ; and this form 
then coincides with that of the Ist pers. plur. 52372 from us, which comes from 
427922. The Palestine grammarians direct us to write this last (in the 
way of distinction) 4222; which, however, Aben Ezra rightly condemns. 
ma’. stands always without a Mappig, and originates from 77272 or H977'3°3 , 


§ 102. consuNcTIONs. 193 


3. Several prepositions, specially those of space and time, 
are properly nouns plura/, [like the Germ. wegen, and our Eng, 
always]; see § 106, 2. a, for the ground of this. ‘They occur in 
part exclusively, (and in part together with the singular forms), 
and take the form of the plur. construct, receiving suffixes in the 
same manner as nouns plural (§ 89, 2). 


Some of these prepositions, from > stems, (e. g. "28, "22, "), may be 
traced to probable singular forms, such as "28, 722, 77125; but the analogy 
of others makes it more probable that we are to regard them as proper 
plurals. Comp. the plur. forms "22 from j2; "22, 7737, ete, from 25 

EXAMPLes. “M8, oftener "778, (binder region), behind ; eas suff. “ny, 
behind me, 47708, behind thee; and so WMOMIN, DSTINN, etc. “Xx, poet. 
“bx, (region, direction), towards, to, unto ; with suff. always “bx, to me, 
ey, nnd, DSWDN, etc, 

2, (interstice), between ; with suff "37a, 42°25 but alaals a, Ds 22, 
mami, pm, (from 9372, Mi"). 

2 from, out of, rarely 722 (const. plur.), Is. 30: 11. 

43 (continuance) from M33, to, unto, evento ; plur. "72 (only poet.) ; with 
suff. "79, FIZ, MIP, O22, (even this last with a (-) instead of a (—) un- 
der >). 

2B, on, over, const. of 3 (the upper part), from M>2 to mount up; plur. “by 
(only poet.); with suff. 3, Wee, VEY, DMD, for the last also andy in 
poetry. 

mr (the under-part), wader; with suff. in the plur. "nnn, AMM but in 
the sing. also, Dann. 


§ 102. 
Conjunctions. 


J. Consunctions serve to connect sentences, clauses, and 
words, and to express the relation between them. Most of them 
come from other parts of speech, which originally are pronouns, 
adverbs, or prepositions. 

(a) Pronouns ; as "2X, "D, that, because, then. The first is the predomi- 
nant relative pronoun ; ‘the second comes from a pronominal stem, (§ 36). 

(b) Adverbs ; e.g. 5X, 53 (not), that not ; DX (Whether), if; 8, PL, std, 
however. Also adverbs with prepositions ; as 2723 (in the not-yet), before ; 
or with another conjunction added, as "> 58, moreover, much less then. 

(c) Prepositions ; i. e. such as serve for the connection of sentences, etc., 
by connecting them with the conjunctions “Bx and "3; e. g. WR 4z5 be. 
cause, (lit. on account of that); "58 “MN after that, “UND, like as, (fr om 3); 
"D> p> and “GX APs, im consequence of this, that, in order that, because. 

25 


194 § 102. consuNncTIONS. 


The conjunction itself may be omitted, and the preposition be employed as 
one; e. g. >3 (for Twix 52) because ; D->¥ for WN {D >¥, because that, 
because. 

In like manner, also, all prepositions before the Inf. may be explained as 
conjunctions, (§ 130, 2). 

2. Even those which are in use merely as pdiMidnatians, ap- 
pear to have belonged originally to other parts of speech, viz. to 
have been properly nouns, and to develope a relation to verbal 


roots. 

E. g. IX, or, (prop. will, laste mx, comp. Prov. 31: 4), like the Latin 
vel, ve, in relation to velle; 45, lest, "that not, (turning away, 725). Even 1 
the most common of all, seems to be connected with 1 (connection, hook, 
nail). 

The punctation of Vav (1) is, in many respects, analogous to that of 3, >, 
>, § 100,2. But, as a more feeble letter, it has some abinge peculiar to it- 
self; e. g. 

(a) Commonly it has a simple Sheva, (1). 

(b). Before words with simple Sheva under their first letter, the Vav has a 
vowel sound (ii); as >5>4, w-I°khol. In the same way, (the case in d ex- 
cepted), it sounds before the cognate Labials 3, 2, 5; as "12722; and so 
even before a Hhateph Sheva, when it does not wel under a Guttural, as 
ani, Gen. 2: 12. 

(c) Before ("), it obtains Hhireq magnum, e. g. "7774 (§ 24,2); but before 
1, short Hhireq, as On), Jos. 8:4; before 4, a Seghol, as m1, Gen. 
20: 7. (Comp. § 62. n. 5.) 

(d) Immediately before a tone-syllable, it often takes (-), like to 3, 3, E, 
(§ 100, 2. ¢.), specially when two short words, as a kind of couplet, are 
brought together; e.g. 995) 40m Gen. 1: 2, So mbnd4 pis, Gen. 8: 22. 
Specially does this take place, at the end of sentences or clauses; e. g. 
rps om) ous, Gen. 7: 13; 42723 my, 1 K. 21: 10. 


§ 103. 
Interjections. 

4. Among the interjections are many words which are 
merely natural sounds represented by letters; as AON, m8, ah! 
sin, “8, wo! men aye! 

2. Most of them, however, are from other parts of speech, 
and they become interjections by a more animated utterance 
and use of them. 

E. g. 93, F377, see! (lit. here); 735, plur. 13%, (lit. give) from 3M to give, 


o) 
§ 103. INTERJECTIONS. 195 


and used for excitement, come now! do now! etc.; 42> and 42> (go, go 
ye), = age, agite ;* mo">n, far be it, prop. ad profana; “3, (perhaps for 
“v2), [pray you! hear me! x3 up! come on! (In Ethiop. an Imper., come on, 
come !) These particles of requiring and beseeching, are placed after other 
words.) 

(a) nh and ma> stand connected, in this form, also with the fem. and 
the plural; which shows that they have taken upon them the nature of 
interjections. 

(b) This last word serves for the expression of manifold niceties of speech, 
which are pointed out in divers parts of the Syntax. Here, only a mere 
sketch, 3 stands, (a) After the Jmper., both of command and of request, 
(§ 127,3). (6) With the Imperf., both of first and third persons, § 125, 3. and 
126,1. (c) Once with the Perfect, § 124,4. (d) With several particles; e. g. 
N2 MIM, see now! Specially with conjunctions; e. g. X82 >X, ne (quaeso), 
not, I pray you! So s2-0x, if indeed, siores, i. e. if in a qualified way, or 
courteously and modestly expressed. 'Those who speak courteously or reve- 
rentially often employ this particle in a variety of ways; see Gen. 18: 3. 19: 
7, 8, 19. 50: 17. 


LAIRD, LEADING DIVISION. 


DN alan ee 


CHAPTER I. 


SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 


§ 104. 


Relation of the Noun to the Adjective ;,of the Abstract to the 
. Concrete. 


The Hebrew language has, in proportion to its Nouns, a de- 
Jiciency in respect to adjectives ; and several kinds of these, viz. 
of material, are almost entirely wanting.* This defect is sup- 
plied by nouns, particularly in the following ways: 

B. A noun of quality is placed after the word designed to be 
qualified, in the Genitive. 

Constantly so in respect to the designation of the material ; as 502 ">> sil- 
ver vessels, (lit. vessels of silver); ®°%2 Mam (an ark of wood), a wooden ark, 
(like the French des vases d’or); and so D242 mins, an eternal possession, 
Gen. 17: 8; "O72 "M2 (men of number) few men, Gen, 34: 30; 4M jak a 
precious stone, Prov. 17: 8. So often, even in cases where adjectives exist ; 
as Wapm "33, holy garments, (lit. garments of holiness) , Ex. 29:29. Comp. 
the French, un homme de bien. [So often in English: Vessels of gold—sil- 
ver—wood—stone ; garments of wool—cotton—linen—silk, ete.; man of 
benevolence—malignity—blood, ete.] 

Nore 1. Seldom does the nonn of quality precede, while the other fol- 
lows in the Genitive ; e. g. 3222 “13°, (the choice of thy vallies), thy 
choice vallies, Is. 22: 7. Comp. Is. 17: 4. 37: 24. Gen. 23: 6. Ex. 15: 4. But 
this is the usual position of 5D (universality) in the sense of all, entirely, 
(§ 109, 1). 


* Some few adjectives of this sort there are, formed after the manner of the pass. 
Part.; e.g. TANS of cedar, cedrine, ama brazen ; comp. cuneatus, wedge-shaped. 





§ 105. usE OF GENDER. 197 


Note 2, Even where the adjective, as predicate, should stand alone, sub- 
stantives are often employed for it; e.g. The earth was desolation and emp- 
tiness, Gen. 1: 2; Let this day be darkness, Job 3: 4. See Ps. 35: 6. 88: 19. 
110: 3. Is. 5: 12. Job 23: 2. 26:13. Seldom has the noun in question 
[standing for an adjective] a preposition with it; as in Ps. 29: 4, The voice 
of the Lord is MD with strength, i. e. strong, powerful. 


2. Adjectives which indicate possession, quality, custom, 
and the like, are often made in Hebrew, by a noun descriptive 
of quality, etc., put in the Gen. after another noun indicating the 
possessor or subject of the quality, ete. 

E, g. (4) O° man; as D523 WN, (a man of words), an eloquent man, 
Ex. 4:10; mss w*x, an intelligent man, Prov. 24:5. (b) 522 lord; as 
“sv d32, hairy, 2K. 1:8; misdmim bya, a dreamer, Gen. 37:19. (c) 52 
son and m2 daughter; as dna a hero, 1 K. 1: 52; 03p "23, Orientals, 
Gen. 29:1; mua, one year old, Ex. 12:5; mya j2, condemned to death, 
1 Sam. 20: 31; dosbS ma, a base woman, 1 Sam. 1: 16. 

Bolder and more poetical is it, when the abstract is put directly for the 
concrete ; e. g. 32923 (good-for-nothingness) , a villain, a base person ; as in Lat. 
scelus for scelestissimus. Such an abstract noun also may have the nature of 
a COLLECTIVE, and represent classes or bodies of men; as NYP (bow), bow- 
men, Is. 21:17; “"xP (harvest), reapers, harvesters. Principles like these are 
common in all languages, § 82, n. 1. 

Nore. On the other hand, adjective forms and concretes, specially in the 
JSeminine, often pass over to an abstract sense; see various forms in § 83, 
and comp. § 105, 3, 5. 

Remark. It is proper to remark here, that poetry employs certain epi- 
thets of eulogy in such a way as to use them constantly, without supplying 
any noun to accord with them. E. g. 3x, mighty, i. e. God; "28, pow- 
erful, i. e. bull, but in Jer. for the horse; 41" majestatic, august, for prince ; 
22>, pale, for the moon. Comp. Lat. merum for vinum, Gr. vye7 (moisture) 
for the ocean, Odyss. I. 97. 


§ 105. 
Of the use of Gender. 

Whether the Hebrews regarded a noun as fem. or not, may 
be known partly from the fem. ending of the same, (§ 79, 1. 2) ; 
and partly by its being constructed with fem. predicates. The 
fem. plural form generally indicates fem. gender, but not al- 
ways; see § 86,4. Here our design is, to point out the ratio in 
which the signs of the fem. gender are employed. 

1. Most natural was it to indicate a distinction of this,na- 


198 § 105. use oF GENDER. 


ture in the physical conformation of men and beasts. But in 
respect to this, there are several gradations, the more or less 
easily the distinction of gender can be*apprehended. Most of 
all is the distinction recognized, 

(a) When a separate word is chosen to designate each sex. No peculiar 
ending of the word, in such a case is necessary; as, for example, in our 
English father, mother ; ox, cow; and so in Hebrew, 38 and 58; bx ram, 
and Dm ewe; “iam and {mx he and she-ass. 

(b) When the fem. has an appropriate termination; e. g. MX brother, Mink 
sister ; D232 young man, ta>d young woman ; “8 a bullock, H72 a heifer ; 22> 
a male calf, 232 a female calf. 

(c) When the fem. gender is manifested only by the context, (Communia). 
E. g. in Greek, 6 and 7 Bots; 6 and 7 mais, etc. So in Hebrew, >23 camel, 
Gen. 24: 63 masc., 32: 16 fem.; and so “p3..cattle, Ex, 22: 1. Job 1: 14. 

(2d) When a word is chosen without reference to any distinction of gen- 
der, which is generic and comprises both sexes, (Epicoena). 'Thus the eagle, 
the kite, etc., in English; and in Hebrew, 35 the bear, 5325 a bereaved bear, 
Hos. 18: 8, fem. in 2 K, 2: 24; 55x cattle, fem. in Ps, 144: 14, 

Remarks. (1) Often, where distinctions of gender are made by appro- 
priate words or forms of them, they are disregarded by writers, [when the 
distinction in question is not important to their object]. E. g. “iam for 
jiry, 2 Sam. 19: 27; 55x for Mx, Ps. 42: 2; and so “23 for boy, and also 
for 722 girl, in Pent. and in Ruth 2: 21, comp. Job 1: 19. So in English, 
spouse, consort, for either sex; and in Arabic also, where, in more elevated 
style, the use of the fem. is avoided, (such forms, for example, as >93 mis- 
tress, Fwy bride), although among the later writers usage is different. 

The like reluctance to employ the fem. is exhibited in some passages of 
the Heb. writings; e. g. ]7aX artyficer, Prov. 8: 30, where the subject is fem., 
(like Pliny’s artifer omnium natura, 2. 1); and so ra a dead person, said of a 
woman, Gen. 23: 4,6; B°t>x God, said of a goddess, 1 K. 11:5. So in 
English: friend, teacher, martyr, author, witness, etc. 

(2) Among the epicenes (d. above), the races of beasts are named as masc. 
or fem., according to the manner in which they exhibit themselves as strong 
or weak, bold or timid; e. g. mase. 252 dog, 3x1 wolf; fem. 3%" dove, 
AMON stork, HP" Ma ostrich, M3278 hare. . 

2. Most normal is the designation of gender in adjectives 
and participles, according to usual principles, see § 79. 

«>. Besides the proper feminines, the fem. form is often em- 
ployed to designate objects, which in Greek and Latin are call- 
ed neuter gender.* These may be classed thus: 





* In respect to Nos. 3, 4, see striking remarks in Harris’ Hermes, I. p. 37, etc. 


§ 105. use OF GENDER. 199 


(a) Things without life; for which the fem. form, as indicative of that 
which is weaker, appeared the most appropriate ; e. g. 5/77 (Joins of a man) 
MD side (of a country), region ; Mx"2 forehead, HAZ a covering (for the leg), 

(b) Abstracts, which prefer the fem. form, even when a mase. is in use ;' 
©. g. D2, MIP} vengeance ; IP, NIN help, § 83, 11, 12. The fem. of An- 
JECTIVES is predominantly used for the neuter gender and substantive mean- 
ing; as M2522 rectum, 10 og dv, Ps. 5: 10. In the like way is the fem. plural 
employed ; as mi>54 great things, Ps. 12: 4. 

(c) Sometimes the fem. is employed to designate rank, dignity, or office ; 
which comes near to the abstract meaning ; as Mi2"5 chie/s, (lit. highnesses), 
[and so our Eng. excellency, etc.] ; m>mP preacher, comp. M720 scribe, Neh. 7: 
57. Ezra 2: 55. Even in the fem. plur. form, miax fathers, a reference to 
the dignity of office seems not improbable. These words are all employed 
as masc., i. e. according to their true meaning, In a large extent is this 
usage to be found in Arab., Aethiopic, and Aramaean; e. g. Hhaliphat, Cali- 
phate for Caliph. A somewhat remote resemblance is found in magistracy, 
magistratus, lordship, Ital. podesta, etc. 

(d) Collectives ; as HAN traveller, AN caravan, lit. the wandering for wan- 
derers ; 253 (fem. of mia), a company of exiles ; MII (lit. inhabitancy) , in- 
habitants, Mic. 1: 11, 12; mass (enmity) for enemies, Mic. 7: 8, 10. Very 
common in Arabic. Comp. the poetic daughter of Tyre = sons of Tyre, i. e. 
the inhabitants of Tyre; so daughter of my people = sons of my people, i. e. 
my countrymen. In reference to lifeless things; M¥2 wood, 7232 cloud, MI78 
cedar wainscoting. In Greek: to tnanimoy and 4 inmog for cavalry; and so 
9 x@unhoc in Herodotus. 

(e) On the contrary, there is an occasional usage which is the exact re- 
verse of this, viz. the fem. is used as an index unitatis, when the mase. is 
used generically ; e. g. "2% shipping, fleet, (1 K. 9: 26, comp. 2 Chron. 8: 18), 
M228 @ particular ship ; “Zw hair, (collectively), M72v a hair, (see Judg. 20: 
16); so MINM a fig; TB2 a flower, (also a collective Y2> Gen. 40: 10), ete. 
But this usage is unfrequent, [and only the remains of a more ancient cus- 
tom.] 


4. Some words, which have no distinctive fem. ending, are 
shown to be feminine by the construction in which they are 
placed. Besides those mentioned above, (No. 1. a), they con- 
sist principally of the following classes: 

(a) The names of countries and towns, considered, as it were, as the mother 
or nurse of the inhabitants ;* e. g. “1¥8 Assyria, DIN Edom, “3% Tyre, all 
feminine. 











* Thus fx, 2 Sam. 20: 19, stands for mother-town ; as it does on Phenician coins ; 
comp. m2, 2 Sam. 8:1, and also wytpérodsc. It is the same image carried out, 
when the inhabitants of a country are called its sons; e. g. sons of Zion, Ps. 149: 2; 


200 § 106. PLURAL AND COLLECTIVES. 


So also are the appellatives which distinguish country, town, and generally 
localities ; as V8 land, >2m region of country, “72 town, M78 way, “3M cowt, 
Mama camp, >is the under-world, 373 threshing-floor, “82 well,* ete. 

Inasmuch as the names of nations, for the most part, are treated as masc., 
it not unfrequently happens, that the same noun as the name of a nation is 
masc., and as the name of the country, feminine; e. g. M3577 (masc.) the 
Jews, Is, 3: 8, but in Lam. 1: 3, it stands for Judea, and is feminine. So 
pox, Idumeans, masc., and Jer. 49: 17, Idumea, feminine. Still, occasionally 
the names of nations are constructed as feminine ; e. g. in Job 1: 15. 1 Sam. 
17: 21. Is. 7: 2. 21: 2. To this the poetic personification of nations as _fe- 
males attaches itself; e. g. 47: 1. 50: 1. 54: 1 seq. Lam. i: 1 seq. Ezek. 16, 

(b) The members and parts of the human or animal body ; e. g. such as 9 
and 5D hand, >a foot, 572 eye, iis ear, SIN arm, yw tongue, > horn, 52D 
wing, 7 tooth, {Pi beard, 32 belly, womb, because these are considered as 
instruments of service.t Hence, also, lifeless instruments and furniture are 
treated as fem. ; e. g. 277 sword, I> pin, M472 and V3 staff, /i798 ark, chest, 
7D couch, D'D cup, ID pitcher, and 73% stone, ete. Most of these nouns are 
fem. in the kindred languages. 

(c) The words for light, fire, and other powers of nature ; e. g. Uv the sun, 
ON fire, (Ethiop, esat), Wi light (Job 36: 32), MX and “52m oven, ma Slash of 
light, “i3% window, Gen. 6: 16, 535 wind and spirit, 622 breath, soul, ete.t 


§ 106. 
Of the Plural and Collectives. 


J, Besides the appropriate plur. endings (§ 86, 1, 2), the lan- 
guage has employed other expressions as indicative of plurality ; 
Cn 2. 

(a) Particular words with a collective meaning; to which nomina unitatis 
correspond ; e. g. "18 a beeve, “pa cattle, as “PI Hw five beeves ; Hiv one 
of the small cattle, \X% small cattle, i, e. sheep and goats. (Comp. Eng, twenty 
people). (b) The fem. ending as generic, § 105, 2, c. (c) Nouns singular, of 
which many have a collective meaning; as S38 man or men, Gen. 1:26; wrx 
man, men, humanity, (quasi men-ness, Germ. Mannschaft); "33 speech, words ; 











sons of Babylon, Ezek. 23: 15, (as in other cases we have sons of the house,—of the mother's 
womb, ete.) 

* This last word is normally mase.; and among the others, there is an oscillation 
between the two genders. 

+ Some of these words oscillate between the two genders, sometimes being treated 
as masc.; e.g. 2477, Is. 17:5; pw, Ex. 29:27; 399, Zech. 4:10; 448%, Ps. 29: 16. 

¢ Particulars, in the Lex. Finally, some words with a fem. ending, which are oc- 
casionally constructed as masculines; e.g. Ym: brass, mvp bow (from wip), ny 
time, (for m2). One seems hardly to have perceived their origin, ] 


§ 106. PLURAL AND COLLECTIVES. 201 


s7iN enemy, enemies. ‘The article is prefixed, when the entire genus is de- 
signated, § 107, 1. 


2, On the other hand, the plurality designated by the plural 
ending is sometimes applied to other kindred relations, so that 
the Hebrew often employs the plural, where other languages 
make use of the singular. The plural form, then, is employed 
to designate, 


(a) Extension* of space or time; and therefore it is often employed to de- 
signate spaces, regions, etc. E. g. nv2w heaven, (§ 86 b, n. 2); Ovaiva heavenly 
elevation, Job 16: 19; mibaya region of the feet ; MioNVa region of the head. 
Also for certain members which occupy space on the ‘body ; ; as DB face, 
puis neck; (so in Greek te otégva, te vata; Lat. praecordia, cervices, 
Jauces). Again, time, periods of time; as D°M life, O72 season of youth, 
D-2pT season of old age. Also continued state or condition, ‘attributes ; Ds 
perversity, DVT compassion, D">1D25 bereavement. 

(b) To might or power, so far as this is conceived of as originally some- 
thing divided and manifold. E. g. 0°>x God, (be it that this word first 
came from polytheistic views, and was transferred to the “God of gods,” 
or that it was intended, consistently with monotheism, to designate the 
power of God in its various manifestations). In accordance with this, 2°87, 
the holy One, Hos. 12: J. Prov. 9: 10. 30: 3, (comp. Josh, 24: 19, and Chald. 
was the most High, Dan. 7: 18). So D°=7m penates, always in the plur., 
even when it means only one image, 1 Sam. 19: 13, 16. Further, "258% = 
yoy, the Lord; e. g. MBP D°274N8 a severe master, Is. 19: 4; YIN FTN the 
lord of the country, Gen. 42: 30; and so 523 master, often "223 (plur. ) his 
master, "222 her master.t 

Nore 1. The usage noted under (6) above is confined to narrow limits, 
“not going beyond the words there quoted. Even those words may be em- 
ployed also in the singwar. In respect to the construction of such plurals 
with adjectives, see § 110, 1. n. 3; with verbs, § 143, 2. Respecting "278 used 
to designate God, see § 119, n, 4. 

Nore 2. The plurals under (a sihaisisin are but few in ordinary prose; but 





* It is, (to use a abi bein sof expression) a transfer of mutable extension to immu- 
table, (note 1 below). Elsewhere in the language, large and much are both designated 
by the same words, viz. 29 and E:=3. 

+ Something like to this is it, when kings, speaking of themselves, say we; Ezra 4: 
18: 7:24, comp. 1 Mace. 10:19. 11: 31; a mode of speaking transferred to the divine 
Being, Gen. 1: 26. 11:7. Is. 6:8. The Jewish grammarians name this, hin zn 7424, 
(i. e. the plar. of strength); recent grammarians call it pluralis excellentiae, or pluralis 
majestaticus. The use of the plural as a form of respect in address, (in German sve, 
they), such as some of the modern languages have, (Eng. you, French vous, etc.) is 
somewhat foreign to the Heb. usage. * 


26 


202 § 106. PLURAL AND COLLECTIVES. 


words of such a kind are more frequent in poetry ; viz. such as D528" dark- 
ness, (darkened spaces) ; Br22M delight, B7272% , etc.* 

<3, When a substantive is followed by a Genitive, and the 
idea of the whole needs to be made ole al, this is accomplished - 
in several ways; viz. 


(a) The first of the two nouns assumes the plural form; and this even in 
composite proper names; e. g. 31 "EA mighty men; sing. "7728-2 a Ben- 
jamite, pl. "2799 722, 1 Sam. 22: 7. 

(b) Both are put in the plural; as.D°2"n ""23, [more intensive than the 
form above], 1 Chron, 7: 5; b°N>> sma, lit. houses of restraints, i. e. close 
prison, Is. 42: 22; and so =°>x *23 sons of the mighty, or God’s sons, Ps. 29: 1. 

(c) Sometimes merely the second noun has the plural ; e. g. a8 m3 father’s 
house, plur. M38 M72 ancestral house, families, Num. 1: 2 seq.; 877372 “3 
most precious fruits, Cant. 4:16. See in respect to this matter hitherto neg- 
lected by grammarians, Judg. 7: 25, “the head of Oreb and of Zeeb,’” i. e. 
heads; also 2 K. 17: 29. Dan. 11: 15. In such cases the composite idea is 
treated as a nomen compositum. Both the Syriac and Ethiopic exhibit all 
these three varieties; see Hoffmann, Gramm. Syr. p. 254; Ludolf. Gramm. 
Ethiop. p. 139. 

Suffixes in the plural, after the manner of (c), are frequently 
met with; e. g. 128 their mouth = their mouths, Ps. 17: 10; 
2a their right hand = hands, Ps. 144: 8. 

4., For the designation of plurality, the repetition of a word, 
both with and without the copula, is sometimes employed. 


This designates a thing considered collectively, or an aggregate made up of 
parts, and so, all, every; as Di" Bi, day day, i. e. every day, or all the while. 
So wx WAN every man, also WN) WN, Ps. 78:5; piss ois, Esth. 3: 4; 
sins a5, generation and generation, i. e. all—every generation, Deut. 32: 7. 





[* Remarg. A fit name for most of these would be pluralis intensivus, or plur. of 
intensity ; where the object is not to designate merely the multctudinous condition of a 
thing, but to give a strong colouring to the expression itself, or (as we say) to make 
it emphatic. Viewed in this light, the solution is easy. All languages exhibit some- 
thing of the same idiom, The Greek goes much beyond the common estimate in 
this respect. In common prose it is indeed quite limited; with the exception of 
neuter-plural adjectives and adverbs. But whoever will watch this matter in ancient 
Greek, e. g. in Aeschylus, will find it in his tragedies far more frequent than in any 
part of the Hebrew Scriptures. It might even be called Graecism, as developed in him ; 
for the like, in the same degree, I have met with in no other language. It were easy 
to particularize by some scores of words, but time and place forbid. My apprehen- 
sion is, that the generic idea of ¢ntensity runs through nearly all these expressions, 
(except where severality of parts is implied by the plural, or simple aggregation). To 
understand the nature of this idiom well, is essential to a radical knowledge of the 
Hebrew.—S.]} 


§ 107. use OF THE ARTICLE. 203 


Hence the same phrase is sometimes used in a distributive sense, as 72 
mad 142, each herd by itself, Gen. 32: 17. Sometimes it is employed in a 
eteiedetiie sense, and denotes a large multitude ; as (in the plur.) MIAN mings 
2m, many pits of asphaltus, or allogether asphaltus-pits, Gen. 14: 10; see 
2 kK. 3: 16. Joel 3: 14. Finally, it indicates several, (as 5D designates both 
all and several or various); in which case it has the copula. E. g.j385 528, 
of several weight, Deut. 25: 13; 255 32, of a double heart or intention = with 
duplicity, Ps. 12: 3. 2 Chron, 12: 38. 


Repetition in passionate addresses, (which in several writers, 
however, is so customary as to diminish from its intensity, e. g. 
Is. xu. seq.), is a matter of mere rhetoric, and not of grammar. 


Nore 1. Connected material, stuffs, etc., are generally conceived of as a 
unity ; and consequently such words are almost solely in the singular; e. g. 
ant gold, DOD silver, {77 wine, (but D2 water, is plur., although sing. m Arab.). 
In case the mind adverts to severalty of parts, then of course the plur, is 
used ; as D"DDD pieces of silver, Gen. 42: 25, comp. Is. 1: 25. So in regard 
to grain; men wheat on the field, p°~m wheat in the corn. 

Note 2. In cases where a:so-named poetic plural is employed, an actual 
plurality is to be supposed; as D2" seas for sea, Job 6: 3, comp. Gen. 41: 
49. Job 17: 1, the pits are my lot, (because many of them are together). 
Job 2]: 32. 


§ 107. 
Use of the Article. 


The article (71,5, §35) was originally a demonstrative pro- 
noun, (like 0, 7%, 76, in Homer); yet of so little strength, that it 
was almost never employed, except when attached (prefixed) 
to the noun. 


This stronger demonstrative power the article still possesses in a few 
phrases; as Di*m this day, to-day ; M21=H this night ; DBM this time. It also 
helps to show that the article once had such a power, that, (1) It sometimes 
stands for a relative pronoun before a verb; 5N¥'233 who are found, 1 Chron. 
29: 17. 26: 28. Josh. 10: 24. Ezra 8: 25, comp. Gen. 18: 21. 46: 27. Job 2: 
11; and so msm — my TN, 1 Sam. 9:24, (2) It also shows the demon- 
strative pronominal nature of the article, that it is used to connect, and refer 
back to, a previous subject-noun, in order to make this subject more promi- 
nent; in which case it is mostly connected with a participle; e. g. Ps. 19: 
10, The laws of the Lord are truth...(v. 11) Dvam2r = they are those 
which are to be desired, [the article having a kind of relative-demonstrative force, 
and) being nearly as strong as M2, or avtoé. So in Ps, 18: 33. 104: 3, 
(thrice like M3727, he who lays the beams). Is. 40: 22, 23. 46: 6. Gen, 49: 


204 § 107. use OF THE ARTICLE. 


21. Job 44: 25, and in Ps. 18: 33 still stronger: Don "271N72 DRM, the God 
who girds me with strength. 18: 48. Jer. 19: 13. Neh. 10: 38. [Everywhere 
in the Hebrew Scriptures is this participial use of the article to be found, 
and always in the sense of a relative-demonstrative, sometimes == "2X, and 
sometimes nearly the same as 72. 'To convert all these participles into 
nomina agentis as some grammarians do, with an article, is giving but an 
unsatisfactory account of this matter.—S.] 

In general, the article is used as in the Greek, German, [and 
English]. It stands, of course, when a noun is repeated which 
had just been introduced; e. g. God said: Let there be light 
(ms) .... and God saw the light (WxAIny); 1 K. 3: 24: Bring 
me a sword (2%); and they brought 2995 the sword. Hee. 9: 15. 

So also when a thing is well known; or unique in its kind; 
as nisdud qb the king Solomon; ween the sun; 72ST the earth. 

It is omitted, when the object is indefinite, general, or before 
unknown; e. g. some of the above examples, also Ece. 1: 12, I 
am king (422) over Jerusalem. 

As to the first cases stated above, it is only in poetry that the article can 
be omitted; and generally, it is employed less frequently there than in 
prose; e. g. Ps. 21: 2, 5279 for 727; Ps. 2: 2, poy for yaya. 

The particular cases where the article is predominantly employed, may 
be reduced to the following heads: 

¥. When a generic word is employed in a collective way, 
and designates the whole or totality of any object. 

E. g. the righteous, the unrighteous, Gen. 18: 25; the woman, for the whole 
of woman-kind, Ecc. 7: 26; the Canaanite, Gen. 13: 7. 15: 19, 20. This is 
like to‘our English idiom: The Russian, the Turk, etc. ; and so in the Greek: 
6 -Adnvaios, 6 Sveuxdoros, etc. [But sometimes the article is omitted, e. g. 
“2420 the poor, Ps. 102: 18; but "ox the prisoner, (generic yet anarthrous) 
in v. 21, Is not the design here to say merely: Any or every prisoner ? 
Comp. § 109, 1. 6]. 

2. When a generic word is intended to designate a particu- 
lar individual. 

E. g. like 6 srovnrig ( = Homer); jue adversary, j2wn the adversary, 
Satan; >23 master, >= Baal (an idol god). So DINn the first man, 
Adam; >xn, o>xn the only true God = nin", (yet nt>y frequently 
stands for the same, on the ground of its having become a proper name, 
§ 108, 1); "m2 the stream = the Euphrates ; 92273 the circular region, 
i. e. of the Jordan. 


3. By a like principle, the article is placed before nouns 


§ 107. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 205 


which are the proper names of rivers, mountains, and towns, 
when the name is plainly an appellative, and is regarded as 
such by him who employs it. 

So German, die Neustadt; French, le Havre; in English, the White 
Mountains ; and, like to this, the Hebrew “87h (lit. the stream), = the 
Nile ; 732320 (lit. the white), the Lebanon; 37 (lit. the stone-heap), the 
town Az. But particularly in the names of towns is this usage, (a few 
cases excepted), rare; and in poetry it for the most part ceases, (comp. 
§ 108, 1). 

Nore |. For our indefinite article a, the Hebrew article does not stand ; 
but still, it should be remembered, that the Hebrews thought and spoke of 
many objects definitely, of which we speak indefinitely. This will be 
made plain by the following particulars: 

(a) In comparisons, fancy, which paints the image of an object, makes it 
definite to itself by contemplation, and it spoken of as such; e. g. ‘ white 
as the snow ...red as the scarlet,’ Is. 1: 18; ‘as the beasts,’ Ps. 49: 15; 
‘he will toss ess away as the ball, Is. * 18; ‘the heavens shall be rolled 
away as the book,’ Is. 10: 14. 24: 20. 29: 11. 53:6. Ps. 33: 7 [To these 
may be added, for fuller satisfaction to the inquirer, other passages in abun- 
dance; e. g. Ps. 97: 5. 102: 5, 10, 12, 27 (bis). 103: 5, 15. Deut. 1: 17 (bis). 
4; 20. 12: 15 (bis), 16, 23. Is. 2: 6. Josh. 9: 25. Is. 29: 3. 40: 22, 25, 31. 41: 
15. 63: 13, 14. 66: 14, 15; and so in all parts of the Hebrew Scriptures] 
Even such cases as those in Judg. 14: 6. 16: 9, Is, 29: 8, 11, come virtually 
within this principle. 

Yet where the noun compared is made definite by an adjective or partivi- 
pial, [or in any other way], the article is omitted, as it is before a Gen. ; e. g. 
ip> like the nest, Is. 10: 14, but in 16: 2, nase ip? like a nest forsaken. 
Comp. Ps. 1:4 yia>, with Is, 29: 5, (two nouns after > anarthrous, because 
each of them has an adjective with it). [Both cases are illustrated in Ps, 102: 
12. Instructive are the following cases ; viz. Is. 40: 15, where two nouns with 
> are anarthrous, being defined by connected nouns that follow. Ps, 102: 
7. Diz> followed by a Gen., and even the Genitive after the noun with > 
is not necessary in order to omit the article, for e. g. we have a 722 Is. 
40: 15. Anything which defines or limits, may cause its omission. Both 
cases occur in Is. 41: 2; and so cases of both kinds, in Amos 5: 24.—S.] 

[ Remarks. (1) Where even a relative clause follows a noun with 3, which 
clause explains, limits, etc., the article may be omitted on the ground above 
stated ; as in Is, 1: 30 ad fin. Is. 66:13. (2) The limitation of Ges, and Roe- 
diger above, that the article after > is omitted only when the noun is made 
definite by an adjective, is, in the first place, as we have already seen, to be 
modified by extending it to other cases of defining, limiting, etc.; but, 
secondly, cases occur where the article is omitted after >, even when none 


206 § 107. Use OF THE ARTICLE. 


of these reasons are applicable; e. g. Is. 66: 12, "M2; 29: 4, 31ND; Jer. 20: 
30, D252; Is. 53: 7, 572, and yet in the same verse, HW2 in the same 
predicament. Job 16: 14, “i333 ,* which last case is recognized by Roedi- 
ger.—S. | | 
(b) The article is inserted before generic names of things well known, [even 
when they do not comprise the definite idea of totality, as in No. 1. above.] 
The Heb. says: The silver; the gold; the water, the cattle, etc., [where we 
say: silver, gold, etc.|. Hence Gen. 13: 2, “ Abraham was rich in the cattle, 
the silver, and the gold. The manner in which the Hebrew conceived of this, 
seems to have been thus: ‘He had much of these well known treasures.’ 
See the article in Gen, 41: 42. Ex, 31:4 (tris), 35: 2 (tris). Is. 1:22, Baa. 
(c) Frequently do abstract nouns take the article, [and often where the 
English idiom would omit it]. Comp. the Greek 10 iamimor, French la mo- 
destie. Hence the names of moral and physical evils may take it, [where 
the English would mostly omit it], E. g. sma by the falsity, Is. 29: 21, 
[= by falsity]; Gen. 19:11, m202 with the blindnesses, [= with blind- 
ness, or possibly it may be the name of a specific disease]; Is. 60: 2, the 
darkness, [= darkness, while in the very next clause, 2p "25 thick darkness is 
anarthrous}]. The frequent Di" "41 means: It came to pass at the or that 
time, not on a time. [May it not also mean: a certain time? See what follows. ] 
[How important it is to the interpreter, that some fixed principles should 
be fully developed here, (if there be any), every experienced exegete will 
readily see. Criticisms of high import stand connected with it, in some 
very difficult passages. For further confirmation of the frequency of the 
article before ABSTRACTS, the following examples may serve, nearly if not quite 
all of which demand the omission of the article in English; viz. Is. 59: 15, 
mann; Ecc. 3:16, 275 (bis); Dan. 9: 7, pI; Cant. 8: 7, the love, (bis); 


Ecce. 10: 6, the folly... the lowliness; 1 K. 7: 14, filled with the wisdom, the 
intelligence, and the knowledge ; Ecc. 7: 12, 17, the wisdom; same in Job 28: 
12, 20. Prov. 2: 2 (also the understanding); Ecc. 2: 13, the wisdom... the 
folly ; Zech. 8: 19, Love ye the truth and the peace ; Mal. 2: 5, My covenant 
was the life and the peace; Amos 4: 9,... smitten with the blasting and the 
withering ; Jer. 24: 10, I have sent the famine and the pestilence; same in 
Jer. 27: 8; Jer. 27: 15, They prophesy ... according to the falsehood. It 
would doubtless be easy to increase this list greatly, by reading and obser- 
vation, I have omitted here many cases which I had noted as being of the 
same nature, because they are in the Gen., and a question might be made, 
whether the article does not belong in reality to the preceding noun; see 
§ 109, 1. Clear cases are needed for satisfactory proof. ‘That the article is 
always used before abstracts, no one would think of asserting, But what 








[* All this serves to show how undefined and unsettled still are some of the nicer 
limits of the Heb. article; as they are in some cases, also, of the Greek one.—S.] 


§107. UsE OF THE ARTICLE. 207 


the proportion between arthrous and anarthrous examples of this nature is, 
has not yet been developed; nor whether, in the cases of insertion and 
omission, there is any perceptibly discrepant meaning of the same words. | 

[ (d) Different from any of the shades of meaning yet noticed, seems to be 
the use of the article in a few cases, where the object is to designate an in- 
dividuality of the class named, in distinction from the class itself, but not to 
point out specific individuality in the sense of distinction between 2 and B. 
Or to be more brief and specific in statement, the article, in such cases, de- 
signates specific unity as partaking of a generic nature, or it as an inder uni- 
tatis. Itis kindred with No. 2 above, but not specific as to this or that indi- 
viduality, but as to individuality in distinction from class. It is almost equiva- 
lent to the Greek tvs, in some of its shades of meaning; and corresponds 
quite well with our phraseology—a certain man, a certain lion, or some par- 
ticular man, etc. In this way, we may perhaps explain several passages that 
have long been contested; e. g. 1 Sam. 17: 34, And there came “=n 
aisims%, acertain lion and bear, comp. Amos 5: 19, which, however, va- 
ries a shade from this ; ; 1 K. 20: 36, ANT, a certain lion ; Gen. 8: 7, 8, 
a particular raven... dove; Gen. 14: 13, wien, a certain refugee ; and so 
Is. 7: 14, $2220, a certain virgin, or (if one insists upon it), 9 ve&veg Tus, a 
certain young woman. Gesenius and Roediger have referred all but the last 
of these cases to a similarity between this usage in respect to the article, 
and that in the case of abstracts ; quasi a lionish nature, etc. ; ingenious, but 
not quite satisfactory. Ewald (Gramm. 1 edit. p. 567) refers such cases to 
a principle of this nature, viz., that ‘when an object is regarded as single in 
its kind, but is yet called by the name.of the genus, the article points out 
in this case, one either as known, or in distinction from other kinds? ‘This 
is some approach to the statement above, but still it is quite distinct from it. 
The known seems inappropriate in the cases stated; and from other kinds 
does not appear to designate the nature and object of distinction made by 
the article in the passages cited.—S. ] 

Note 2. The Vocative admits the article ; oh generally, in cases where 
it would be elsewhere inserted; e. g. 51730 jO=n 31m, O Joshua, the 
high priest! Zech. 3: 8. 1 Sam. 24: 9. 


§ 108. 
Omission of the Article. 
I. It is omitted in proper names of persons, countries, and 


nations; in the last when they accord with the name of the 
original ancestor, or of the country. But Gentilicia admit it. 


E. g. 113, DYE Egypt, stor, DIN Syria or the Syrians. Gentilicia: 
merge, 1Sam. 18:3; 32:27, § 107, 1, (a collective). 


208 § 108. omisstoNn OF THE ARTICLE. 


2, Before nouns limited or defined by a following Gen., or 
by a suffix. These make the noun definite, so that the article 
is superseded; e. g. mindy ay, the word of God; "38, my fa- 
ther. ; 


Exceptions. There are cases where a noun, in a const. or suffix state, 
takes the article ; but the reasons of this are special ; viz. (a) When the de- 
monstrative power of the article is required to be intensive; as Jer. 32: 12, I 
gave MPT ADSM, this very same deed of possession, in reference to y. 11. 
So Josh. 8: 33, w7xn the half thereof, then ‘ism, the (other) half thereof. 
[Very rare]. 

(b) When the Genitive is a proper name, which excludes the article, (No.1. 
above). E, g. 5x7m7a 313, the altar of Bethel, 2 K, 23:17; >x-m2 >yn, 
the God of Bethel, Gen. 31:13; “7UN 322, the king of «Assyria, Is. 36: 16. 
Comp. Gen. 24: 67. Jer. 48: 82. Ezek. 47: 15, comp. with 48: 1. 

(c) When the connection between the noun preceding the Gen. and the 
Genitive itself, is of the looser kind, so that the first word makes a sense in 
a measure complete by itself, and the Gen. only adds some supplementary 
idea... In particular is this allowable, in cases where material is designated ; 
e.g. 27720 janq, the weight of lead, or rather, the weight, the leaden one. 
Zech, 4:10; oemin marr the altar of brass, 2K. 16:14; man jiaNn oe, 
Josh. 3: 14. Ex. 28: 39. 

«>- Before a predicate, which in its own nature is indefinite. 

E. g. Gen. 29: 7, bisa oi Tiz, the day is still high. Gen. 33: 13. 40: 18. 
41: 26. Is. 5: 20, 34 aie 3 poysien, who call the good evil. Is. 66: 3. 

Yet there are cases, where the nature of the predicate is such as to require 
the article. KE. g. Gen. 2:11, 2305 N5n, it is this which surrounds; Gen. 45: 
12, "a2 “D 7D, for it is my mouth which speaks ; Gen. 46: 3, [>x, but is 
it not subject here ?] Ex. 9: 27, [special emphasis]. Num. 3:24, [?]. See 
another case where the predicate has the article, § 107. ad init. Remark, 2.* 


§ 109. 
Use of the Article in connected Words. 


2. When an idea is expressed by a noun in the construct 
state with its following Genitive, to which the article ought to be 
affixed, the latter has its location before the Gen. noun, although 
it qualifies the whole expression. 

E. g. ome. wes a man of war, Jos. 17:1; but ren>an “tre the men of 


* All cases of participles with the article fail of establishing the point in question. 
It is a mere relative demonstrative. The other cases, Ex. 9: 27 excepted, (and this is 
a doubtful case), fail as to confirming the principle. 








§ 109. arTICLE IN CONNECTED WorDs. 209 


war, Num, 31: 49; “py 723 a lying word, Prov. 29:12; x72: "25 the 
words of the prophet, Jer. 28: 9. 

(a) The same position does the Article occupy, when only the Gen. has 
a definite meaning, and the const. noun an indefinite one; e. g. NN mpd 
a part of the field, 2 Sam. 23: 11, (see the contrary usage in Josh, 24:32. 
Gen. 33:19); MoINT Ux a Ausbasdveth, Gen. 9: 20, (seemingly contrary 
is TIY way, Gen. 25: 27). Yet, to avoid such dubious expressions, other 
phraseology was usually chosen, see § 112. 

(6) The usage of the article before the noun following >>, may be ex- 
plained by the aid of this. That noun has the article, where definite total- 
ity is meant, (like tows les hommes, toute la ville); and has it not in cases 
of indefinite universality, or a distributive sense = each, (like tout hom- 
me, i tout prix). E. g. bIxm>D all men, lit. the totality of men; YI 2D 
the whole earth; on the contrary, j387>D every or any stone, 1 Chron. 29: 
2; "a3->2 any thing, Judg. 19:19; pis-d2a_ at every time, Ps. 7: 12; 
“m1 b> every living thing. 

Even in cases of composite words in proper names, [where the definite 
sense is needed], a solution takes place, and the article is put before the 
second noun; as “2”2"-\2 a Benjamite (§ 85,5), "2va"n7j2 the Benjamite, 
Judg. 3:15; vanbn mn, the Bethlehemite, 1 Sam. 17: 58. 

Exceptions. These are, where the article stands before the first noun, 
and is omitted before the G'en.; see in § 108, 2.6. So in the later style ; 
see Dan. 11:31, comp. 12: 11; [which case will not compare witli § 108. 2. 6, 
where the Genitive is a proper name. This solution, therefore, is quite 
doubtful. ] 


2. When a substantive has the article, or (which is equiva- 
lent) has a Gen. or suffix after it, an adjective connected with it 
and ss ang hag it, also takes it; and so, too, the pronoun-adjec- 
tives, TT, SAN. 


E. g ee son the great city, Gen. 10:12; xinn pipan, this place, 
Gen. 28: 19; npinn 73 thy strong hand, Deut, 3:24; >353n nin Hews 
the great work of Jehovah. / 

(a) Not unfrequently does the article attach to the adjective only, so that 
the definiteness is superadded; e. g. "Ww oi day the sixth, or a day, 
the sixth, Gen. 1: 31; (on the contrary, "23 0%", a second day, Gen. 1:8); 
Gen. 41: 26. 1 Sam. 19: 22. Ps. 62: 4. 104: 18. Neh. 3:6. 9:35. Zech. 14: 10; 
and so M3 U2, Gen. 1: 21. 9: 10. When the adjective is properly a par- 
ticiple, this is the usual construction ; as Azim 33m, the sword which is 
powerful, Jer. 46: 16. 27: 3. [All such cases (with a Gersieiale) may be re- 
garded as examples of the reative-demonstrative sense of the so-called ar- 


27 


210 § 109. ARTICLE IN CONNECTED WORDS. 


ticle, and not to be reckoned among the appropriate developments of its 
later use. | 

(6) Sometimes the noun alone has the article ; Ezek. 39:27. 2 Sam. 6:3. 
(But perhaps the text here is faulty). Yet such an omission of the article 
in the pronouns 845 and Mi is frequent, inasmuch as these are sufficiently 
definite of themselves; e. g. 84 MND, Gen. 32:23; a inn, Ps. 12: 8. 
Particularly is this the case, when the substantive is made definite only by 
a sufit; as mx AIay, 1 K. 10:8; comp. Ex. 10: 1. Josh. 2: 20. Judg. 
16: 5, 6, 15. By design is the adjective indefinite in M23 DMaa a base 
slander of them; the article before mz" would give the meaning of the 
base slander, Gen. 37: 2. 


|ReMARKS ON THE SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. Any reader of Hebrew, who is 
competent to note and analyze all the phenomena of the article, will soon meet with 
difficulties which none of the preceding rules will satisfactorily remove. The simple 
truth is, fhat this part of Hebrew Grammar is, to the present hour, but imperfectly 
enucleated. It needs a thorough reading of the Hebrew Scriptures mainly for this 
purpose, by a Grammarian who is well versed in all parts of his business. It is easy 
to ask questions in relation to this subject, that have not been satisfactorily an- 
swered. For example: What are the limits to the use of the article before the names 
of well-known and unique objects? Before proper names? Why do some of these 
always have the article; some occasionally; others never? Why should mountains, 
rivers, and towns, have the article, when they are appellatives, and names of persons and 
countries have it not, when they both are of the same significance? Why do names 
indicating totality or individuality have it, and yet generic names, which belong to nei- 
ther of these categories, often have it, and often have it not? What are the limits ? 
Why do abstracts now have it, and then have it not, without any assignable difference 
in the meaning of the words? Why is there the like oscillation in regard to nouns 
following > What other limitations, besides the Gen. or a suffix to a word, exclude 
the article in such cases? Do not relative clauses which define or limit, often admit 
the article in the noun preceding, and sometimes omit it? Are there any real cases, 
in which the predicate has it? What does the apposition of a second noun to a first 
having the article, demand in that second? Do all nouns, with suff: or Gen. after 
them, demand the article for the adjective that may be added? When the noun has 
the article, and the adjective not, what is the true solution? Specially, are participles 
bound by, the same laws as adjectives? Is there not a wide difference between the 
participles transitive and intransitive or passive as to their meaning, with regard to the 
kind or method of union with the noun? Before an active participle, which has a 
verbal sense, is the article so-called ever anything but a relative demonstrative pronoun 4 
How is the case to be disposed of, when such a participle follows a noun which has 
the article, while the participle omits it? It is alleged, that there is much difference 
between poetry and prose, the former rarely using the article where it is very common 
in the latter; are there any assignable limits to this usage, if indeed it actually is such 
an one? What is the difference as to the use of the article, between earlier and later 
writers + Have any individual authors peculiarities of their own in the use of it? If so, 
. which of the sacred writers are they? And what are these peculiarities? How does a 
Chaldaizing tendency in a writer affect his usage of the article? Do differences of 
dialect produce discrepancy of usage ? 
But—manum de tabula. A great portion of these questions remain almost where they 


§ 110. coNNECTION OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 211 


were 1600 years ago, and in yain does the inquisitive philologist seek a satisfactory 
answer. Who then should venture to hang important conclusions on the insertion or 
omission of the article, (which is every day done, however, by party critics and theolo- 
gians), until a great portion at least of these questions is ‘satisfactorily answered ? 
Much is it to be wished for, that such questions may reach the eye of some Roediger or 
Hupfeld, and rouse them to bring out a Monogram on this difficult but very impor- 
tant subject—more important it may be from the use that is made of reasoning from 
the supposed principles of the article, than in and of itself. At all events, if these and 
the like questions cannot be answered satisfactorily, then it is very important to know 
this, and to steer our course accordingly. —S.] 


§ 110. 
Connection of the Noun with the Adjective. 
1. The adjective which serves to qualify the noun, stands 
after it, and agrees with it in gender and number; as 7773 Ux, 
mer mex. As to the article before it, see § 109, 2. 


Nore 1. Before the noun the adjective that qualifies it is seldom found; 
and only when it is emphatic, or some peculiar stress is laid upon it; e. g. 
Is. 28: 21, [? predicate here]. Is. 53: 11, [? puss a righteous person, my 
servant, apposition]. Ps. 89: 51, [? all the multitudes, the nations, apposi- 
tion]. Ps. 145: 7, [? The memory of the abundance of thy goodness]. 
Comp. also Ps. 18: 4. [? He ts to be praised, or, There is one to be praised, 
I will call upon Jehovah, i. e. he is the one]. Merely poetical are the ex- 
pressions that follow: "2372 "p"DN the strong ones of the shields, i. e. 
mighty or most powerful shields, Job 41: 7, comp. v. 21; also Is. 35: 9, 
[no ravenous one of the beasts]. Or, instead of the plural for the second 
noun, a collective noun singular may be taken; e. g. Is. 29: 19, DIN "27aN 
the poor among men, i.e. the poor, [? intensive — the most wretched | ; 
Hos. 13: 2, [the sacrificers of men, = sacrificers, or more exactly, men 
whose business ts sacrifice]. 

Nore 2. When fem. nouns, or nouns which incline to this gender (§ 105, 
4), take two adjectives, it is sometimes the case, that only the one which 
stands nearest the noun conforms in gender; e. g. 1 Sam. 15: 9, m2N>b2 
o22 M1422, [where 43322 (forma monstrosa) is Sem. and the participial 
adjective 2) is masc. 1 1 K. 19: 11, pm cee man, [but m4 is probably 
comm. gender, so that both adjectives accord with it). Ps, 63: 2. For the 
ground of such a construction, see § 144, n. 1. 

Nore 3. In respect to number, it should be noted that the dual takes 
plural adjectives, [for these have no dual forms]; e. g. Prov. 6: 17, o723- 
mint, haughty eyes. Ps, 18: 28, Job 4: 3, 4. Is. 35: 3. Here also the con- 
structio ad sensum is frequent; for collectives may unite with plurals of 
any kind, as in 1 Sam. 13: 15. Jer. 28:4. On the contrary: The so-called 
Pluralis majestaticus (§ 106, 2. 6) takes (for the most part) the singular 
number in conjunction with it; e. g. P"4x Donde Ps. 7: 17. Is. 19:4. (See 


212 § 111. apposirion. 


also the plural of the adjective joined with the plur. mapest., 1 Sam. 17: 
26). 

2. When an adjective is limited or explained by a noun, 
that nonn is put after it in the Genitive. 


E. g. "Nh nbs fair of form, Gen. 39: 6. So, also, B1B> “Py pure of 
hands, Ps. 24:4; 52 v24x mournful of soul. (The like in Greek and 
Latin). Is. 19: 10. (Comp. Part., § 132). 

VERBAL ADJECTIVES govern the same case as their verbs; as Deut. 34: 9, 
Maan mn xba filled with the spirit of wisdom, where 1355 is the Accusa- 
tive. 


3. Of adjectives as predicates, see § 141 seq. 


[Remarxs. The adjectives (so-called) adverted to in Note 1, are in reality nouns, 
and belong to an idiom of another kind than that which is here in question. A great 
proportion of apparent disagreement between the noun and adjective or participle, as 
to gender or number, belongs either to nouns of common gender, or to nouns which are 
collectives, or else to participles or adjectives used as nouns in a collective sense. In all 
such cases, there is a constructio ad sensum.—As to the principle in Note 1, it is so 
doubtful as to be unsafe for a basis. The amount of the whole matter is, that the 
common law of the language puts the adjective after the noun; and a very few cases, 
(where still a sense altogether good, without reversing this law, may be made), can- 
not be regarded as decisive that the law is ever reversed.—S.] 


§ 111. 
Apposition. 


When two nouns, in the same relation of case, are placed to- 
gether, so that one serves to explain the other, then arises what 
is called apposition. 


E, g. ny28 HUN, a woman, a widow, 1K. 7:14, So nmbsma mig, a 
servant-maid, a virgin, Deut. 22: 28; max pyy728 , words, ireth oDie 
meaning is obvious. 

Nore J. Two apsectives, (or more), may also be in apposition; in 
which case the first usually modifies the second; e. g. Ley. 13: 39, mina 
misad nina, spots dull white; Lev. 13: 19, rgy20% M22> Mma, a spot 
whitish red = pale red. 

Nore 2. On the other hand, the noun in apposition that qualifies an- 
other, is usually put after that other; and only in certain connections does 
the word in apposition stand first; as 113 92%, Mis>ui F201, (just as we 
say: king David, king Solomon, etc.). So the Latin also, as Cicero con- 
sul. 


§ 112. oF THE GENITIVE. 213 


§ 112. 
Of the Genitive. 


1. Independent of the ancient but defunct ending of the 
Genitive ($88), the Hebrew expresses the Gen. relation by 
placing it after another noun which governs it, or is said to be 
in the construct state, (see §$7). When several Genitives fol- 
low in immediate succession, they are sometimes expressed by 
a series of construct forms, or shunned by circumlocution, or by 
varying the expression. 

E. g. for the first class: Gen. 47: 9, "May [BY vs". So Is. 21: 17. 
10: 12. In the examples above produced, all nouns stand in the const. state 
even to the last Genitive. Yet there are cases, where the Gen. is subordi- 
nate to the main idea and merely descriptive of what an adjective would 
express, and this Gen. is put in the case absolute, because the Gen. that 
follows depends on the main idea and not on this subordinate one. So Is, 
28: 1, tn vandy Drag xa, the fat valley of those smitten of wine, 1 Chron. 
9: 13. Ps. 68: 22. 

Like to this is the rare case, when a noun has immediately after it an ad- 
jective, and then a Genitive; as 2o2 M2>u 4aN, the stone unhewed of the 
quarry, 1 K.6:7. The usual arrangement puts the adjective afier the 
two nouns, as 4253 3nt mn H2, lit. a crown of gold great, — a great crown 
etc. 


2, The Genitive designates not merely subject, but some- 
times object. 


E. g. Ezek. 12: 19, psauiisn oan, the violence of the inhabitants, i. e. 
that which they commit; but in Obad. v. 10, #°48 o=m, violence ae thy 
brother, i. e. suffered by him. So Prov. 20: 2, 532 nak, terror of the 
king, i. e. that which he inspires ;* 050 mp1, the cry of Sodom, i. e. re- 
specting or concerning Sodom, Gen. 18: 20,—Other variations there are, 
like y2 322, way to the tree, Gen. 3: 24; DIO “MEP, ye Judges as in 
Sodom, Is. 1: 10 ; B°>8 “M31, sacrifices. well pleasing to God, Ps. 51: 19. 


2. A connection by a Genitive not unfrequently expresses 
the same meaning that apposition would express. 


E. g. 8 m3, the river Euphrates ; "ay na n>1n3, the virgin-daughter 
of my people, Jer. 14: 17. Is. 37: 22. 
Nore 1. Between the Gen. and the noun which precedes it, in some 


* So in Latin as to injuria, metus, spes, etc. Caes. Bell. Gall. I. 30. Gell. 9: 12. 
E. g. metus Pompeii, metus hostium ; in Greek, riori¢ Veov, A6yo¢ Tov oravpod, 1 Cor. 
1: 18, ete. 





214 § 113. circuMSCRIPTION OF THE GENITIVE. 


rare cases, a word is interposed; e. g. in Hos, 14:3, 2 Sam. 1:9. Job 27:3, 
comp, Is. 38: 16. [? All doubtful cases; and it is inconclusive to appeal to 
them to establish the preceding statement] . 

Nore 2. Proper names with a Genitive following are not frequent; for 
they are too definite in general to need further limitation. Yet geographi-. 
cal names not unfrequently take a Gen. for the sake of specification; as 
pita aan, Ur of the Chaldces, Gen. 11: 28; 2.772 Dax, Aram of the two 
streams, i. e. Mesopotamia ; and in the like manner Mixay mim, Jehovah 
[God] of hosts. 


§ 113. 
Circumscription of the Genitive. 
, Besides the designation of a Genitive by a noun construct 
with a following Gen., (§ 87. § 112), there are several paraphras- 
tic modes of dnciaynting it; in particular that, where > is pre- 
fixed to a noun sustaining such a relation; for > properly signi- 
fies a belonging or appertaining to arent and is therefore ap- 
propriate to the relation in question. The latter method is ac- 
complished in several ways: viz. 


(1) By > “WN, most commonly designating possession; as VON Neda 
AMID, the flock which belonged to her father, Gen. 29:9. 47:4. But 
when east Genitives follow in succession, this same circumlocution is 
employed simply in order to vary the expression of them; e. g. D355 MAN 
Danwe Ww, the overseer of the herds of Saul, 1 Sam, 21: 8; pyrwin 3585 
nisi uN, the song of the songs of Solomon, Cant. 1: 1. Gen. 40: 5. 2 
Sam. 2: 8 1 Chron. 11: 10. (In Rabbinic, the Gen. is marked by prefixing 
bu, [out of 5 “wx]. In Syr. and Chald., "5,3, marks the Genitive). 

2 ) By > simply (without "WX), the Geni of dp siieaeane to and of pos- 
session ;* @. g. danwd mrpktn, the watchmen of Saul, 1 Sam. 14: 16. In 
particular: (a) When the governing noun (const. noun) should be regarded 
in an indefinite way; as "87> 42, a son of Jesse, 1 Sam. 16: 18, ("> 42 
would mean the son of Jesse); 7i>2 xd JAD, a priest of the most high 
God, Gen. 14:18, 41:12; 3179 snk, a friend of David, 1 K.5:15; “iva 
S172 or “ava WI, a Psalm of David, i. e. belonging to him as aiitor: 
and the same with the ellipsis of one word, 13>, of David, Ps. 11: 1. 14: 1. 
(b) When several Genitives depend on one substantive ; e. g. NIWA Mp =a 





* Essentially the Gascogner speaks as correctly, in his /a fille a Mr. N., as the writ- 
ten language in la fillede—. The first denotes appertainment, the second origin. The 
Arabians distinguish a double Genitive; the one by >, the other by y. The Ro- 
man languages, with their de, proceed on the ground of the last expression, [denoting 
the origin}. In Greek, comp. what is called schema Colophonium, e. g. i Keoaah TO 
avOpory for Tod dvbporov. 


§ 114. FURTHER USE OF THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 215 


1225, the field-portion of Boaz, Ruth 2: 3. 2 K. 5:9; »2>2b oven 35 
Ben, 1K. 15:31; Servo 3a nived mins wx, the heads of the " fathers 
of the tribes of the children of Israel, Josh. 19: ‘51. Here the two closely 
united phrases are joined in the way of abs. and const.; while the looser 
connection is indicated by >. (Comp. also § 112, 1), (c) When the gov- 
erning noun has an adjective connected with it; as PsN? THN ja, a son 
of Ahimelek, 1 Sam. 22: 30. (The const. state may also be employed, in 
such cases, see § 112, 1). (d) After numerals ; e. g. SIn> ois Hwy nrawa , 
on the 27th day of the month, Gen. 8: 11. 


§ 114. 
Further Use of the Construct State. 


The Construct State, although it generally serves to indicate 
the closer connection of two nouns, in the flow of speech is also 
employed, in some cases, out of the Gen. relation; viz. - 

1, Before Prepositions ; specially in poetry, and most fre- 
quently when the governing noun is a participle. 

E. g. (a) Before 2, as “Epa MTMaY, poy in harvest-time, Is. 9: 2. 5: 11. 
(b) Before >, as ab sank, Is. 56: 10. 30: 18. 14: 19. Ps. 58: 5. Job 18; 2. 


(c) Before y2, 2; 3 > cba weaned from milk, Is. 28: 9. (d) Before dz ; 
Judg. 5: 10. 


2. Before the relative pronoun; e. g. "Ux Dips, Gen. 40: 3. 
3. Before relative clauses without Bs, 


E. g. Is. 29:1, 43 mam mop, the town [where] David dwelt (differently 
explained by Ewald and his school]; 58 23> 8> DIp2, the place [which] 
God knows not ; 1 Sam, 25: 15. Ps. 90: 15. Comp. § 121, 3. n. 1. 


4, Even before 1 copulative, (although seldom); as msn 
moti, Is. 33: 6. 35: 2. 51: 21. 
5, Ina very close connection of speech. 


E. g. in the case of 7x (for 348), 2 Sam. 17: 22. Zech. 11: 7, Is. 28: 4, 
16. Comp. the const. state in numerals, such as 18, 14, ete., § 95, 2. The 
like in the forms of some adverbs, § 98, 2, c. 

Nore. If in most of these instances, the absolute case might be used in- 
stead of the construct; so, on the other hand, in certain connections the 
absolute is employed where we might expect the construct; e. g. (a) In 
geographical names, as M222 MB Dax, Abel Beth Maacha, to distinguish 
it from other places with the name of 538. (See, on the other hand, § 112, 
Nn. 2)../ 

(b) In some other cases, where the connection is not close enough for a 
Genitive relation; so that a second noun is put in apposition, or it may be 


216 § 115. DESIGNATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 


regarded as used adverbially, (§ 116), HE. g. Ezek. 47: 4, 1292 bra, not 
water of the knees, but water even to the knees ; Is. 30: 20, yn2 Dv, water, 
trouble, i. e. water with trouble. 

(c) In the phrase MiNs¥ OUT>N, for Minas [">x] ody , God [the God] 
of hosts. 


§ 115. 
Designation of the other Cases. 


1. Since the Hebrew has dispensed with the living use of 
case-endings (§ 88), the question arises: What is the kind of 
compensation for this, which designates the relations of cases? 
The Nomrnartve is always and only to be known from the syn- 
tactical adaptation. In respect to the Genitive, see § 112—114. 
The Dative is distinguished by the preposition >; the ABLa- 
TIVE, by 72 from, out of, ain, on. The Semitae, however, re- 
garded all nouns, in these cases, as Genitives, depending on 
particles which originally were nouns, and in the const. state. 
Hence, in Arabic, they have a Genitive ending ; comp. § 99, 1. 

In respect to the use of > to mark the Dative, (which in various Bde! 
occupies the place of our Genitive), see § 113, 1, 2. 


2. The Accusative has frequently an ending ("—) where it 
expresses locality, (§ 88, 1). Otherwise, it is commonly distin- 
guished by the structure of the sentence. Often, however, the 
prefixed “m8 or 5X, (before suff. also miX), indicates it. This 
particle, however, is employed only when the noun connected 
has an article, or is made definite by a Gen. or a suffix; or else 
is a proper name, [which of itself is definite]. 

In prose this is predominant usage ; in poetry but little use is made of 
my. E. g. Gen. 1: 1, yaN5 mx ova ms, (different usage in Gen. 2: 4). 
With proper names, Gen. 6: 10. Ex. 1: 11. Rare are the cases wliere MX 
stands before indefinite nouns; but this may be done in more elevated 
style, [poetic license], where the article also is often omitted in words that 
have a definite sense; e. g. Prov. 13: 21, o>pvas-my; Is. 50: 4. Job 13: 25. 
Ezek. 43: 10. Very seldom in prose, as in 1 Sam, 24: 6. Ex. 2: 1, where, 
however, the noun is made definite by the connection.* 





* The word mis means being, substance, (comp. nis sign). From this, in close con- 
nection, comes the toncless ~msxy, and then the independent accented word rs. Con- 
nected in the const. state with a noun following, or with a suffix, it designates the 
meaning of ipse, aiTo¢, (see § 122,n.3). In common use, however, it is softened 
down, so as only to mark the definiteness of an object. It becomes as weak here, 


§ 116. usE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 217 


§ 116. 
Use of the Accusative. 

1. The Ace. forms, (1) The object of transitive verbs, § 135. 
(2) It serves to designate words adverbially used, which are not 
directly governed by the verb. It is only the last of which we 
here speak. 

The second leading purpose of the Acc. developes itself out 
of the first; and several constructions which are wont to be 
treated as adverbial, belong in reality to the first category, § 135, 1. 
n. 3. But on this account, the actual use of the Acc. in an ad- 
verbial way, ought not to be denied. In this way stands the 
Accusative, 

(1) In the designation of place, and as an answer to the ques- 
tion: Whither? after verbs of motion;* and to the question: 


Where? after verbs of rest. Lastly, it designates space and 
measure.® 


E. g. (a) Motion: men xx3, let us go into the field, 1 Sam, 20: 11; 
thunn m25>, to go to Tarshish, 2 Chron. 20:36. Ps. 134: 2. — (6) Rest : 
aN mea, in the house of thy father, Gen. 38: 11; >o&n nop, in the 
door of the tent, Gen. 18: 1.— (c) Measure: ‘The waters increased up- 
wards Mx NIb2 wan, fifteen cubits, Gen. 7: 20. 

In the two first cases, specially in the first, the ending (7—) is often at- 
tached to the Acc. ; see § 88, 2. The relation which the first expresses, (to, 
toward), might also be expressed by De , (when persons are named, this is 
the predominant mode of expression); and the’ second relation (77, at) might 
be expressed by 2. But inasmuch as these relations are expressible with- 
out the prepositions, it is not necessary to supply them where they are 
wanting, in analyzing a sentence. 


2, The Acc. designates time, both when, and how long. 
(a) When; as D577, the hy on the Tae at that time, or on this day, 





as in Greek the Sbudue'p pronouns aitod, ait@, abtév; tpsi, ipsum; Germ. stein 
so that the Heb. Dusen Ms, prop. arov Tov obpavor, it, the heaven, is no stronger 
than the simple 7d» oipavév. That ns also expresses the Nom. is not unsupposable, 
and indeed this appears to be actually the case; as in Hag. 2:17. 2 K. 18: 30, (lack- 
ing in the parallel passage, Is. 36: 15); perhaps also in Josh. 22:17. Dan. 9:13. It 
may be regarded as a subordinate Accus. in other cases reckoned here, viz. 2 Sam. 
11: 25. Neh. 9: 32, and even 1 Sam. 17:34; and with the Passive, it is to be reckoned 
as Accusative, see § 140, 1,a. In Ezek. 47:17, 18, 19, ms stands for msv7, if indeed 
the text is not to be so tition dod: 


28 


218 § 117. coMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 


ete. 392, at evening ; m22bn, by night ; Ps. 91:6, DvINS, at mid-day ; 
Gen. 14: 4, 1372 Hw Hws wou, the thirteenth year (i. e. in or during 
it) they rebelled ; 1 Sam. 21: 9 (Kethibb), psy “xp minn, at the ‘be- 
ginning of barley-harvest. [?| — (b) How long : pen mu, [during] s¢z 
days, Ex. 20: 9. 

3, The Acc. is employed where we use the expressions: Ac- 
cording to the measure of or proportion of, in respect to, in re- 
gard to, and other adverbial designations of ideas. 

E. g. Gen, 41: 40, 5338 NO2H Pr, only in respect to the throne will I 
be greater ; 2 Sam. 21: 20, ‘four and twenty "802, in regard to number, 
(so tosic dorFuor); 1K. 22:13, 7nN MB, withone mouth; Zeph. 3: 9,‘ They 
served God IX Dt, with one neck, i.e. with one mind, [or, with united 
effort]. Sometimes a G'enitive is put after this adverbial Acc., which then 
becomes construct ; as "7728 ON, for fear of thorns, Is. 7: 25. So Job 
1: 5, ‘He brought offerings ‘tbs "po, according to the number of all.’ 
Here also we may rank such cases as the following: 902 mwa, double as 
to silver, Gen, 43:15; so Ruth 2:17, psy nary, an ephah as to barley ; 
Gen. 41: 1, Bom2y D2", two years’ time. Comp. § 114.n. 6. 

For kindred cases of the Acc. connected with a verb, see § 135. § 136. 
The use of numerous substantives for adverbs, stands connected also with 
this; see § 98, 2. b. 

Nore. The like relation to time, place, etc., can a noun have, in regard to 
its meaning, if it stands connected with > (as, agrecably to, after the 
manner of); but then > only is to be regarded as in the Acc., and the noun 
after it as in the Genitive; e. g.(a) As to pLacE: D729, as in their own 
pasture, Is. 5: 17, comp. 28: 31. So Job 38: 30, FaN2 ‘afttr the manner 
of stone the water conceals itself? i.e, in freezing; Job 30: 14; 88: 14, 
wrad i> after the manner of a garment ; Is. 29:7 (comp. 23: 15), DI>MD 
as in a dream. — (b) As to time: DinD, after the manner of the time, as 
on the day, Is. 9:3. Hos. 2:5; Hos. 2:17, "a"> as in the days of ; Hos. 
9: 9. 12:10. Amos 9:11. Is. 51: 9, (c) Other relations ; Job 28:5, Ux >, 
after the manner of fire = as of fire; Is. 1:25, Iwill melt out thy dros: 
“i232 as with alkali. — Seldom is a preposition inserted after > thus em: 
ployed; as MUNI as in the beginning, Is. 1: 26. 1 Sam. 14: 14. 

Finally, that a noun with > may indicate, as to meaning, the Acc. of ob- 
ject, and the relation of the Nom., is evident of itself. 


§ 117. 
Comparative and Superlative by Circumlocution. 


1. The Comparative is expressed by 72 (2) placed before the 
object with which comparison is made. 


§118. synrax OF THE NUMERALS. 219 


E. g. 1 Sam. 9: 2, pyn~da mas, taller than all the people ; Judg. 14: 
18, B2va pins, sweeter than honey ;—and in like way after a verb of 
quality, as 1 Sam. 10: 23, psn->22 MB251, and he was taller than all the 
people. 

The particle /72 elsewhere designates preference over a thing, (see 72 ji7", 
preference over, Ecc. 2:13. Deut. 14: 2), which the Hebrew regarded as a 
kind of distinguishing or separating from. (Comp. the Latin Ablative, 
in a comparison ; also the etymology of eximius, egregius ; also the Home- 
ric & maytwy wodota, Il. IV. 96. and merely é nacéwy, XVIIL 431). The 
signification more than attaches itself to the ground-meaning from any 
thing. Comp. with this the use of 52 in comparisons, Job 23: 2. Ps, 137: 6. 

The correlate comparatives, greater, smaller, are expressed 
merely by great, small, Gen. 1: 16. 

2. The many designations of the Surertative all come to 
this, viz. that the positive form is employed, which is either 
marked by the article, or by a following Genitive, so as to show 
that the quality in question belongs, in the way of eminence, to 
a particular individual, etc.; (comp. le plus grand). 

E. g. 1 Sam. 17: 14, David was j2p5 the small one, (i. e. the smallest), and 
the three large ones, etc., i.e. oldest or largest ones; Gen. 42:13. So Jon. 
3:5, BP IS) ob4sn, from the greatest to the least of them. 

A kind of superlative in a noun of quality is the phrase D°w3IP WIP, the 
most holy place, lit. the heliness of holinesses, i.e. what is peculiarly holy 
among other holy things. 


§ 118. 
Syntax of the Numerals. 


i. The numbers from 2—10 are properly nouns, which, how- 
ever, admit an adverbial use, (§ 95,1), and may be joined in 
three different ways with the noun to be numbered; viz. 

(a) They may be in the const. state before the noun, (which latter is in 
the Gen.); e.g. bv29 mui>w, a triad of days. (b) In the absolute state ; 
in which case the noun to be numbered is putin apposition and in the Ace. ; 
e.g. D522 Med, three sons. (c) The numeral is in the case absolute, but 
is placed after the noun; e. g. Wi>w mia three daughters, 1 Chr. 25: 5. 
This last method is found in the later books, which also place adverbs in a 
similar position. In like way with the preceding methods, M28 Myo and 
mY MN? are about equally frequent; Gen. 17: 17. 25: 7, 17. 

2. The numbers from 2—10 have, (with few exceptions, 
2 K. 22: 1), the plural number joined with them. The fens, on 


220 § 118. syNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 


the contrary, (i. e. 20—90), when they precede, have normally 
the singular (inthe Acc.) ; when they are in apposition with the 
other noun, they take the plural. 


The first is the more frequent; e. g. Judg. 11: 38, “3 Dus twenty 
towns. On the contrary pw miaN, twenty ells, 2 Chron. 3: 3 seq. But 
the plural may be used in the first case, (Ex. 36: 24, 25); yet not the singu- 
lar in the second. 

The numbers from 11—19 have the s¢ngular (Acc.) only in certain gene- 
ric often-repeated nouns, such as Di", MW, Wx, etc., (like the German 
hundert Mann, sechzig Pfund); e.g. di> “we nza1~, fourteen days, 
Ex, 12: 6; otherwise the plural is demanded by these composite numbers. 
In this case, the later books usually put the numeral after the other noun, 
1 Chron. 4: 27. 25: 5. 


3%. In numbers composed of tens and units, like 21, 62, etc., 
the thing enumerated may stand after the numeral, and be in the 
sing. Acc.; or stand before and take the plural; or it may be 
repeated and stand in the plural after the smaller number, and 
in the sing. after the larger one. 


E. g. first: mw Ow DIM, 62 years, Gen. 5: 20; secondly: HXSI3U 
pestis mew, 62 weeks, Dan. 9: 26 thirdly : 778 Dosaw] IW Bran, Gen. 
12: 4, 23: 1. 


4., The Orpinats over ten have no form which distinguishes 
them from the numerals, and of course the cardinals are used 
therefor; which either stand before the object enumerated, or 
are placed after it in the Genitive. 

E, g. Gen. 7: 11, pis “ws nyawa, on the 17th day; 1 K. 16: 10, mova 
pawi omivy, in the year 27. In the last case, the word 28 is sometimes 
repeated, Gen. 7: 11. 2K. 13: 10. In reckoning the days of the month, 
and the years, the cardinal numbers from 1—10 are used; e.g. DomY nwa 
in the year 2; wo rowa in the year 3, 1 K.15: 25. 2 K. 18:1; nNa 
wah> mevna — wah, on the first of the month — ninth of the month, 
Gen. 8 13. Lev. 23: 32. 

Nore 1. The numerals take the article, when, besides their connection 
with a noun, they stand related to a preceding subject; e. g. D°2UM the two, 
Ecce. 4: 9,12. The case like nya" mpaw, the seven days, (Judg. 14:17), 
is to be explained by § 109, 1. 

Nore 2. Certain nouns, which relate to measure and time, are com- 
monly omitted after numerals; e. g. 502 928 a thousand [shekels] of sil- 
ver; so before ant gold, 1 K. 10: 16. In Ruth 3: 15, boys Bw means, 
siz [ephahs] of barley. In 1 Sam, 17: 17, we have on> ny, ten [loaves] 


§ 119. usE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 221 


of bread. So Bi* is omitted, Gen. 8:5; and In in 8:13. The number 
of ells is often given in this way: Maxa ON, a hundred in ell, Ex. 
27: 18. 

5, Distributive numbers are expressed by doubling or re- 
peating the cardinals. 

E. g. 057 D1, two and two, Gen. 7: 9,15. Once is 528 fem. (lit. 
step); twice, Dv22B; thrice, D225 ° wibw. But the same ideas can be ex- 
pressed by a fem. canis number; as MON once, DIMY twice, wibui 
thrice ; and in the form Axa, as in Num. 10: 4. And in like manner. , by 
the Ordinals; as merd twice, a second time, Gen. 22: 15. Jer. 13: 3. Ezek. 
21: 19. 


Ss LO. 
Use of the Personal Pronoun. 


1. When a personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence, the 
copula (the verb ¢o be) is usually omitted, § 141. 

E. g. mya cy, L [am] the seer, 1 Sam. 9:19; 52728 D62D, honest 
[are] we, Gen. 42: MH; ; mmx oven, blameless [art] thou, Ezek, 28: 15; “D 
Dy vay, that they [were] naked, Gen. 3:7; sin Smy Dim, a dream 
[is] 2é, Gant 41: 26. 

2, The pronoun of the third person often serves as a copula 
between subject and predicate, and takes the place, in a certain 
measure, of the verb of existence. 

E. g. Gen, 41: 26, The seven beautiful kine F354 on2w 2a seven years 
[are] they; Ecc. 5:18, 8 p>R mma nr, this — a gift of God [is] it. 

Sometimes the pronoun of the third person serves as a copu- 
la, when the subject is the first or second person. 

E. g. Ps. 44: 5, "2>2 Nn AN, thou art my king, where x1m has a 
reference to the predicate and makes it prominent, lit. chow [art] he, my 
king ; Is. 37:16. Neh. 9: 6,7. Deut. 82: 39. See in the Chaldee, Ez. 5: 11. 

2. The fundamental rule (§ 33,1) is, that the separate pro- 
nouns are in the Wom. case, and the suffix ones in the oblique 
cases. But to this there isan exception. ‘This is, when the per- 
sonal suffix pronoun in the oblique case needs to be doubled, 
for the sake of intensity or emphasis, (like me, me—thine, thine), 
then the repetition is made by the pronoun in its separate form ; 
and this form is to be regarded as being in the same case as the 
suffix, with which it stands in apposition. 

E. g. So in the Acc. suffix of the verb transitive, Gen. 27: 34, "28 53 "2253, 


222 § 119. usr OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 


bless me, even me; Prov. 22:19. More frequent is the Genitive, joined with 
a Gen. suffix; as 1K. 21: 19, mmx ba 423, thy blood, even thine; Prov. 
23: 15. Ps. 9: 7. In like manner is the separate pronoun used, when in 
apposition with a suffix governed by a preposition, (i. e. a suffix in the Gen., 
§ 99, 1, comp. § 151, 4); e. g. Hag. 1:4, pmX 05>, to you, yourselves ; 1 Sam. 
25:24, "28 "ZB, on me, me; 1 Sam, 19: 23, R45 DA DD, upon him, even him ; 
2 Chron. 35: 21, MmX F729 N> not against thee, thyself. By this same 
principle we may explain Gen. 4: 26, xin ps mud, to Seth, even to him; 
Gen. 10: 21. 

4., The suffix of the verb is properly always in the Accusa- 
live, (§ 33, 2. a. §57), and the Acc. of the pronoun is most 
usually expressed in this way. (See note). Still in a few pas- 
sages, on the ground of a breviloquence which is hardly normal, 
the suffix is also in the Dative. 

E. g. Zech. 7:5, "1masn, have ye fasted to or for me? i. e. for my bene- 
fit. Job 31: 18, axs ~, he [the orphan] grew up FOR me, as FOR @ 
father. Ezek, 29: 3, comp. v. 9. 

Note. The Acc. of the pronoun must be expressed by m& (§ 115) in two 
cases: (a) When the pronoun stands first, and is required to be emphatic ; 
e. g. Num. 22: 38, "n705 AMR, thee have I slain. (b) When the verb has 
a double pronominal Acc. connected with it, and only one can be express- 
ed by a verbal-suffix; e. g. 2 Sam. 15: 25, in& 215, he will show me it. 
But where emphasis in a pronoun is required, it may be separated from 
the verb, and united with mx (mx) for its support, or in order to make it 
capable of standing by itself; e. g. Gen. 4: 14, "m8 muna, thou hast driven 
me out; Gen. 15: 13, om 3234, and they shall afflict them. 

&, The suffixes of nouns, (which are in the Gen., § 33, 2. b, 
and take the place of possessive pronouns*), like other Geni- 
tives ($112, 2), stand related not merely to subject, but also to 
object. 

[The first needs no illustration, it being common everywhtre!” The se- 
cond is according to the following tenor: "02m, (not my violence, i. e. that 
which I do, but) violence done to me, or against me, Jer. 51: 35; iN, 
(not his fear, but) fear of him or on account of him. 





* Possessive pronouns may also, as in Aramaean, be expressed by circumlocution ; 
e. g- Ruth 2: 21, 5) “edgy prize, the lads which belong to me, or my young men. In 
particular is this method of expression adopted, when a Gen. already precedes ; as in 
1 Sam. 17: 40. (Comp. the circumlocutory Genitives in § 113). A suffix in addition 
to this, prefixed to the noun, is pleonastic, [excepting, perhaps, that it gives promi- 
nence to the pronominal idea]; e.g. Cant. 3:7 (comp. 1: 6), miaduibyj inwa, his 
sedan, Solomon’s. Ti 


§ 119. usE oF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 223 


G. When two nouns, one in the const. and the other in the 
Gen., are so connected that they make one composite idea, the 
suffix which belongs to the whole, is appended to the second 
or Gen. noun, (comp. the parallel case of the article, § 109, 1). 
Particularly is this the usage, when the second noun expresses 
quality and supplies the place of an adjective, (§ 104, 1). 


E. g. Ps. 2: 6, wip 35 (mountain of my holiness =) my holy mountain ; 
Is, 2: 20, iBd> ibe his silver idols ; Is. 31: 7. 

Rarely, on the base hand, do such cases occur as the following; viz. 
Ezek. 16: 27, mat 5293 thy way, unchaste. Ezek. 18: 7. Lev. 6: 3. Ps. 30: 
8. [? Is not Mat a fem. abstract, and in apposition with 377, or a predi- 
cate anarthrous ?] 

Norte 1. A kind of incorrectness, (probably derived from the language 
in popular use and transferred to writing), is found in masculine pronouns, 
which refer to fem. nouns, as Gen. 41:23. Ex. 1:21; and vice versa, fem. 
pronouns to masc, nouns, as Deut. 5: 24, (MX, thou, fem. applied to Israel) ; 
2 Sam. 4: 6. [?]. 

Nore 2, The Acc. of the pronoun, as object of the verb, is often omitted 
where it may be easily and obviously supplied by the reader; e. g. 2¢, in 
Ex, 19: 25, 2x51; Gen. 9: 2, 3251 and he told [it]; so him, Gen. 38: 17; 
her, Gen. 24: 12. 

Nore 3. Pleonastic is it, when the suffix-pronoun precedes the noun to 
which it relates, and then the noun is repeated, being put in apposition 
with it; e. g. Ex., S>3o-nx saxini, and she saw him, the child; Ezek. 
10: 3, UNA Naa, when he entered, the man; 1 Sam, 21: 14, Gen. 2: 19 
is of like nature, M297 Wp2...4>, tot... the living creature, where > 
before the final clause is omitted; but in Josh. 1: 2 is supplied. 

Nore 4. In some cases the force of the pronominal suffix is so weakened, 
that it is almost imperceptible ; e. g. in "258% my lord, (lit. my lords, § 106, 
2. b); then, next, this form was used barely in addresses to God, (comp. in 
Ps. 35: 23); finally it was applied without reference to the pronoun, and = 
the Lord.* So in “77°, (lit. in his connections = he, it, together); as 
an psn->>, Ex. 19: 8, ‘all the people together or unitedly. The suffix 
meaning is so obsolete, that the word (although it has a third pers. suff.) is 
used in connection also with the first pers. plur., 1319 52728 , we together, 
1 K. 3: 18, comp. Is. 41: 1. So after the second person, Is. 45: 20. Like 
to this, is: Hear, ye people, 22> all of them = all, Mic. 1: 2, 





* See Ges. Thes. p. 329. Comp. the Phenician names of their gods, viz. Adonis 
(s254y), and Baaltis ("m>3 2); so Notre Dame, Our Lady. 


224 § 120. DEMONSTRATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES. 


§ 120. 
Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns. 


J. The pronoun of the third person, 835, fem. 8", plur. 727, 
fem. 7, 720, (he, she, they), may be connected with nouns [as 
a pronoun-adjective]; and in this case it takes the article, pro- 
vided the noun has it; e. g. 8995 wNn that man, S40 Dies that 
day. (See exception, in § 109, 2. d). 


The demonstrative ny is distinguished from 855, as ovtog is from witoc. 
mt refers to an object present or near, 81m to something already mentioned 
or well known; (comp. art. § 107). Judg. 7: 4 makes this quite clear: ‘ Of 
whomsoever I shall say to thee: This one (1) shall go with thee, he (8175) 
shall go with thee; and of whom I shall say: This one (1) shall not go 
with thee, he (S50) shall not go with thee.” So Ps. 20:8, HEX = ovrou, and 
2 = avrol, v. 9. Hence mis nin means this day, to-day, i. e. the 
time when one is speaking, (Gen. 26: 33). On the other hand, 155 pi, 
the time of which the writer had been speaking, Gen. 15: 18. 26: 32; or 
of which the prophet had been prophesying, Is. 5: 30. 7: 18, 20), and of 
which he continues to speak. 


2. From the demonstrative 51, comes 43, , it relative = 
“wx, (like the German der for welcher), specially in poetry. 


E. g. Ps. 104: 8, ‘To the place, fm> m10" nt, which thou hast founded 
for them.’ Sometimes merely as a sign ‘of solendd, [like "wx], § 121, 1; 
as in Ps. 74: 2, ‘This mount Zion i2 5320 M1, on which thou dwellest.’ 

dverbially employed is Hy}, (a) For there, as nt mim, see there; then 
merely as adding intensity, specially to questions, nt mad, why then? lit. 
why there. (b) In relation to time; when it designates now, Dv225 Mt, 
twice now, Gen. 27: 36. 

od.» The interrogative 2, who, may relate to the plural; as 
mex 2, who are these? Gen. 33: 5. More exactly 72) "2, as 
in Ex. 10:8. It may be applied to things, but it is when per- 
sons are comprised; as 228%, who is Shechem? i.e. the 
Shechemites. 

See Judg. 9: 28. Gen. 33: 8. Moreover, "2 may be in the Genitive, as 
“a na, the daughter of whom? Gen. 24: 23.—[Still further does usage go]; 
for v2 and 12, laying aside their interrogative force, may mean any one, 
any thing, Job. 13: 13. For the last, the language has a word (F7a5N72), 
which is composed of M24 Wa, whatever. 


§121. RELATIVE PRONOUN, AND RELATIVE CLAUSES. 220 


§ 121. 
Relative Pronoun, and Relative Clauses. 


1, The pronoun 7x frequently serves as the mere sign of 
relation, which gives a relative meaning to nouns, pronouns, and 
adverbs. 


E. g. bY there, bY... “ix where ; mad thither, ma... WN whither ; 
pun thence, pw WR whence. In this way the Hebrew forms the oblique 
cases of who, which, etc., as follows: 

Tee Saito frac nui to whom; o>, n>, to them — Dh? WEN, 
> ses, to whom. 

Acc. ink, Ons, him, her — in& WX, THR WE, whom. 

Gen. 1282 “WN, whose tongue, Deut. 28: vane 

With eo eile ; 12 therein, s»z therefrom — ia “BN wherein, V8 
522"2 wherefrom. 

N. B. The Ace. which is also expressed simply by "Hx, Gen. 2: 2. 

Nore 1. In this way can the Hebrew make even the first and second 
person a relative in oblique cases; which cannot be done in many lan- 
guages; e. g. Gen. 45: 4, "nk “win; Num. 22: 30, "9... Wy; Is. 41: 18, 
Frama Wx; Hos. 14: 4, Only in the first person can “= German imi- 
tate this, as der Ich, die Wir ; [while in English we can say: I who do, 
thou who doest, etc., as well as he who does.| In the first two cases, who 
merely indicates relation. * 

Norte 2. The word “x is usually separated, by intervening words, from 
the word which it qualifies, as DY ANS UN, where he was, Gen. 13:3. 
Only now and then are the two words peta 2 Chron. 6: 11. 


_ 2, Before "Gx the pronoun he or any one, (for which the 
Hebrew has no specific word, § 122, 2), is often to be supplied 
in translating; as in Latin is before qui. 


E, g. "8m UN, [he] whom thou cursest, Num. 22:6; 220) 8 UN, 
[that] which they eon not. This omission takes place in nearly all cases 
where a preposition stands before “Ux, which, in interpreting, must be 
joined with the pronoun to be haphliod’ but the relative itself is to be 
translated in the manner that the following clause may require; e. g. “wind 
to him who, and to those who; “exw, from those who ; V8XD, according 
to which or what, and therefore like to as. So also "tx mx, him who, 
or those who, or that which. 

Rare are the examples, where the preposition before “x affects the re- 
lative itself, and corresponds with our mode of expression; as "WN o>, 
Gen, 31: 32 seq., for ia> “UN, Gen. 44: 9,10; perhaps "8x2, Is. 47: 12, 
for Da "x. Comp. also Zech. 12: 10, 3p3 ws nx, for ink PT TUN. 

29 


226 §121. RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSES. 


N. B. Not unfrequently the ellipsis to be supplied, as stated above, con- 
sists of a designation of place or time; e. g. W833, in [the plave] where ; 
“wna, from [the time], sznce. 

3. The pronoun “x can, in all the given cases of its use, 
fall away, i. e. be omitted; (as in English: The woman I love ; 
the book I read) ; when the relation has no visible sign, and is 
known only by the fact, that the clause is of a relative nature. 
This is often the case, and above all in poetry, when “= 
would stand, 


(a) As a pronoun, in the Nom. or Accusative. E. g. Gen. 15: 13, 7X2 
ond xb, in a land [which] did not belong to them; Gen. 39: 4, {>-7->2, 
all [which] belonged to him, comp. v. 5, which inserts the "Wx. ce. 10: 
5, comp. 6: 1, where "WX is omitted.* 

(b) Asa sign of relation; e.g. Ps. 82:2, ‘Happy the man, svim3 Nd 
Viz ib mins, to whom the Lord imputeth not sin,’ [where the atin is 
Jacking which would point out relation in 4>]. Job 3:3. Ex. 18:20. Fre- 
quently it is omitted after designations of time, where the meaning would 
be when or where, (see N. B. under Note 2 above); as 129 DwiMy B25 ny, 
at a time [when] their corn and wine increase; Jer. 36: 2. wee 

(c) Even when it includes the pronoun he, whoever, ete.; e. g. Job 24: 
19, ‘Sheol takes away 482m, [those who] szz ;’ also v.9 ib. And not only 
so, but even when “8 involves along with he or whosoever also the idea of 
place or time ; e. g. 1 Chron. 15: 12, $b “mina 5x to [the place which] I 
have prepared for him; comp. Ex. 23: 20. 

Nore 1. When the pronoun he, whoever, is to be supplied in the Gen., 
then the foregoing noun stands in the construct state; e.g. Ex. 4:13, 453 
movin, by the hand [of him, whom] thou wilt send; Hos, 1: 2, 535 nbn 
mim, the beginning [of that, which] Jehovah spake; Ps, 81: 6, Nd mpi 
sno, the language [of those, whom] I knew not ; Ps. 65:5. Lam. 1: 14, 
Jer. 48: 36. Comp. § 114, 3. 

Note 2, Relative clauses, instead of being attached by “Wx, are some- 
times attached by 1; e.g. Job 29: 12, And the orphan, *> sid Nd4, lit. and 
there was no helper to him, i.e. to whom there was etc., = 35... “WN 





* In Arabic the rule is, that the relative is omitted when it would refer to an in- 
definite subject; inserted, when it refers to a definite one. In Heb. prose such is usu- 
ally the case; Jer. 23: 29. Ex. 14:13, al. Yet the relative is sometimes wanting after 


definite nouns, Ex. 18: 20. 2 Sam. 18: 14, particularly in poetry, Ps. 18: 3. 49: 13, 21. 
Deut. 32:17. Job 3: 3. py 


§ 122. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 227 


§ 122. 
Manner of expressing certain Pronouns, for which the Heb. has 
no appropriate Forms. 


1. The reflexive pronouns, myself, thyself, himself, are ex- 
pressed, (a) By the conjugations Niphal and Hithpael. (b) By 
the pronoun of the third person, in case of a connection with a 
noun or preposition. 


E. g. Gen. 22: 3, Abraham took the two lads imx with him or himself ; 
Gen. 8:9, "x, to himself; 1 Sam, 1: 24, ‘And she brought him out ma 
with herself ; (old German: Er machte ihm einen Rock, thm for sich) ; 
Jer. 7: 19. Ezek. 34: 2, 8, 10. 


(c) By circumlocution with nouns, particularly with #3. 

E. g. Job 9: 21, swp2 S48 ND, T know not myself ; Jer. 37: 9, m39p3, in 
herself ; Gen. 18: 12. 

2. The pronouns he, it, that, etc., in all the cases sing. and 
plur., are usually omitted before “x, (comp. 121, 2). But very 
rarely are they expressed by the interrogative ; e.g. “e7iva, th at 
which, Kec. 1: 9. 3: 15. 


Note 1. The indefinite any one, every one, in relation to persons, is ex- 
pressed by U"x man, one; or by SX Wx, each one; or by Bx Wx, 
Ps. 87:5. In relation to persons and things, by >>, usually without the 
Article, (§ 109,1). Once more; by doubling, as "P52 "P22, every morn- 
ing. Also by the plural; as n‘pa>, every morning, Ps. 73: 14. 

Nore 2. By tx, or its equivalent D5N, is expressed the idea of some 
one, some person; Ex. 16: 29. Cant. 8:7; D058, Num. 1: 2. The idea, 
something, is expressed by "33, or by "237>D, everything. 

Nore 3. Self, the same, the very, in relation to persons and things, is 
expressed by S530, N"5; as NN Wann the very same man. In relation 
to things, there are other words sometimes employed; e. g. DS¥, bone, 
body, (but when used for self, etc., the tropical sense of essence, substance, 
is chosen); as 3 Di" ox22, on that very same day, Gen. 7:13; comp. 
Yam oxD2, in his very prosperity itself, Job 21: 23. 

The Arabian expresses the idea of self by circumlocution, viz. using eye, 
soul, spirit ; the Rabbinic, by 5&2, D754 (bone), 555 (body); the Amharic, 
by tx" head. So in English sometimes: My body, for myself; in Midd. 
High German min lip, din lip. 


3. One, another, the one and the other, is expressed by a 
double 41 or 748; or by *8 with a corresponding m8 (brother) 


228 § 123. usE OF TENSES. 


or 23 (friend) ; and so, in the feminine, by Tex connected with 
niny (sister) or m5 (friend). Both of these are also employed 
in respect to objects without life. HE. g. Gen. 13:11, ‘ And they 
separated nx 5372 wx, each from the other; Ex. 26: 3, ‘ Five. 
curtains were bound Anminsx->x wx, each to the other, 

Nore 5. Some is often indicated by the mere plural; e. g. B72", some 
days, Dan. 8: 27; 0°23, some years, Dan. 11: 6, 8. Sometimes this is ex- 
pressed by “WN Wh, sunt qui, Neh. 5: 2—4. 


CHAPTER IIL 


SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 


§ 123. 
Use of the Tenses in general. 


In consequence of the paucity of definite forms to mark the 
Heb. tenses as absolute and relative, (} 40—48), it cannot be 
otherwise than that a manifold meaning of them should be the 
result. 

In the mean time, one must not suppose that the éwo tenses 
of the Hebrew are altogether undefined and destitute of any rule. 
On the contrary, each of them has its own defined sphere; as 
has been generally said already under § 47 above. The Perrecr 
expresses what is past and completed ; and this, not only when 
it is actually past, but also when it is present or future, butts re- 
garded by the mind as accomplished, inasmuch as one attrib- 
utes to it the same certainty as to that which has already taken 
place, or arranges it as something earlier in contrast with some- 
thing that is afterwards to follow. 

The Imrerrect, (or Infectum, the incomplete, the Future), ex- 
presses that which is incomplete ; and [as nearly related to this] 
that which is in continuance, in progress, (even in time past), 
that which ts becoming so or so, or which ts to be completed in 
future. It is also in particular employed, in a modified form 
(§ 48), to express the relations of the Optative, the Jussive, and 
the Subjunctive. Finally, we must add to all this, the peculiarity 
of the Heb., already mentioned in § 48 b, by means of which the 


§ 124. use OF THE PERFECT. 229 


Vav consecutive joins the Imperf. to the Perf, and vice versa. 
More special rules will be developed in the sequel. 


Erroneous is the notion, that the so called Imperfect and Perfect are 
not actual tenses, and originally comprise no expression of the relations of 
time, but only determine the differences of mode. Much rather does the 
distinction apply, which Varro makes in the Latin Grammar, viz. that of 
Actio perfecta and Actio infecta, i.e. that of ACTION COMPLETE AND 
INCOMPLETE.* 

It is easy to produce examples of the direct contrast between the Perf. 
and Imperf.; as Is. 46: 4, NYY ~oN1 “Mv, I did [it], and Iwill bear 
[you] ; v.11, ib. mrwex AX oA PDN MAN oN snnat, Ihave spoken, and 
I will bring it about ; 4 formed the plan and I will execute it. Deut. 32: 
21. Nah. 1: 12. 

§ 124. 
Use of the Perfect. 

1. In itself and appropriately, the Perrrct stands for time 
past, absolute and perfect, (Praeteritum perfectum). 


E. g. Gen. 3: 10, 11, 52 735 2, who has told you? v.13, Why hast 
thou done (m*wy) this? And so vs. 14, 17, 22. Hence in the narration of 
past things, Gen. 1: 1, God created. Gen. 4:1. 29:17. Job 1:1, There was. 
2:10. In this last case, (i.e. that of narration), the Imperf. very fre- 
quently annexes itself to the Perf., by a Vav consecutive, § 126. b. 1. 


2, For the Puurerrecr. 


E. g. Gen. 2: 2, ny stig imanda, his work which he had made; v. 5, 
Jehovah “72725 xd, had not caused it to rain ; 3 Gen. 7: 9. 19: 27. 20: 18. 
27: 30. 31: 20. Jon. 1: 5. 


&. For the abstract Present of our language; where, (a) It 
designates some long existing and still continuing state or qual- 
ity, (reaching even to the present). 

E. g. "n232 I know, Job 9: 2; "mvt 8>, I know not, Job 10: 13. Gen. 
4:9, snsiv, I hate, Ps. 31: 7, (like the Latin: novi, memint, odi); "MP3s 
I am upright, Job 34:5; 253 thou art great, Ps. 104: 1; "Mop I am 
small, Gen. 32: 11. 


* [That the whole superstructure of the Hebrew tenses is in reality erected on this 
basis, seems to be all but demonstrated in the sequel, by the labours of Gesenius and 
Roediger. The latter has ventured on the name Imrrrrect, for the second tense of 
the Hebrew ; not exactly that of the Greeks and Latins, but sui generis as to its lati- 
tude of extent. The philosophy is good; for Varro had a clear perception of the 
principle, simply from the reason and nature of the case. It would seem that the per- 
petually controverted subject of the Heb. tenses now bids fair to rest on the rational 
and solid basis on which it has recently been placed.—S.] 


230 - § 124. use oF THE PERFECT. 


(>) A continued, repeated, already existing action; hence of- 
ten in general assertions relative to experience. 

E. g. “Hvar I say, I suppose; Sob 7: 13. Ps. 31: 15. Judg. 9: 9, 11, 13. 
Ps. 1: 1, 92 N> walketh not... vay NX> standeth not . . . 255 ND sitteth 
not. Ps. 10: 3. 119: 30, 40. 

N. B. Here, in the domain of our Present, the Perf. and Im- 
perf. of the Hebrew meet, the one or the other being employed, 
according as the speaker conceives of an action or state express- 
ed by the verb, as having already existed, as still continuing, or 
perhaps even now completed, or considers those as something 
which is taking its rise, continuing, or perhaps speedily about 
to make its entrance, (§ 125, 2). 

[Of course the two tenses, when occupying this ground come very 
closely together], and we find (in nearly the same sense) "M25" N>, Ps. 40: 
18, and 25x NX>, Gen. 19: 19. 31:35, [both mean: Z cannot]. In such 
cases the Perf. and Imperf. are often ranged together [in a like sense |: 
e, g. Is. 5: 12. Prov. 1: 22. Job 3: 17, 18. 


4., Even to the future does the Perfect relate, namely, in 
protestations and assurances, where the will or mind of the 
speaker regards an action as performed, or as good as accom- 


plished. 

[In English, we frequently resort to the Presené tense in order to express 
the like views. Anticipation regards future things as present, and speaks 
of thei as already taking place, or as having taken place.] In Hebrew, 
even the language of contracts, or that which is promissory in its nature, 
speaks of things as done, or as being done; e. g. Gen. 23: 11, "mm2 I give to 
thee the field, etc., [i. e. I will give, ete.]; v. 13, IZ give ("mm2) money for the 
field, etc. ; [which shows that a thing can be spoken of either as already 
accomplished, or as now in the act of accomplishing, or as speedily and 
with certainty to be accomplished]. Specially are such expressions em- 
ployed, when it is Gop who makes the promises, Gen. 1: 29. 15: 18. 17: 20; 
and elsewhere it is found in the language of assurances, viz. when God is 
spoken of as about to do a thing; e. g. Ps. 31: 6, O God, "nix amp , thou 
hast redeemed me. ['The principle is obvious. The assurances of Gop 
that this or that shall be done, ete., make it certain that it will be done. 
And when Abraham speaks (as above) of his giving money, or of having 
given it, (for we may translate in either way), he expects to inspire as much 
confidence in his promise, as though it had been actually performed. ] 
Hence, 

SPECIALLY IN PROPHECY, things yet to come are everywhere, 


§ 124. use OF THE PERFECT. 231 


and |times without number], spoken of as already having taken 
place. 


E. g. Is. 9: 1, ‘The people who are walking in darkness, 58", see or 
have seen a great light, ete.; Is. 5: 13, ‘Therefore my people 4>3 wander 
Forth as exiles; Is. 5: 14, 17, 25, 26. 11: 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, [et passim]. Even 
in these cases, [as well as in narration], the Imperf. alternates with the 
Perfect; see in Is. V. Comp. No. 6 below. 

In Arabic the Perfect, with the particle 4) as an intensive, is employed 
in strong assurances, and the like. One says: I have already given this 
to you = I shall certainly and assuredly give it. [In Greek, on all sides, in 
Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, etc. the same idiom is common. Future oc- 
currences are spoken of in the Aorist, to denote assurance or certainty 
that this or that will take place. See proofs in abundance, in Kiihner’s 
Ausfiihr. Gr. Gramm. § 448, 2. The Hebrew idiom has nothing strange or 
unusual in it, with regard to this matter.—S.] 

Very naturally is this language of assurance transferred to wishes or 
strong desires that this or that may happen. So the chief butler of Pha- 
raoh says to Joseph, "29215 Jon "a9 Nivmwy, lit. thou hast done me a 
kindness and remembered me, for thou wilt, etc. The 2 makes the wish 
here very plain. In Arabic, also, the Perf. is employed to express wishing 
and beseeching. So in Job 21: 16, ‘ The counsel of the wicked, "22. APM 
—be it far from me, lit. it has removed far from me. 


&. In respect to the relative tenses, the Perfect marks those 
in which what is past is the leading idea; e. g. it designates, 

(a) The Imperfect of the Subjunctive ; (which may also be 
expressed by the Imperf., § 125, 5). 


_ E. g. Is. 1: 9, 2123 yas> sn pooD, we should have been as Sodom, 
we should have been like to Gomorrha ; Job 3: 13. 


(6) The Pluperfect of the Subjunctive. 

E. g. Is. 1:9, “emit “bd, unless the Lord had left ; Num. 14: 2, m2 53, 
would that we had died, (> with Imperf. would mean: would that we 
might die! § 133, 2). Judg. 13: 23. Job 10: 19, Amy “NH ND TWD, as 
if I had not been, should I be. 

(c) The Paulo-post Future or Futurum exactum. 

E. g. Is. 4: 4, ym 5x, when [the Lord] shall have washed away, lit. 
has washed away ; Is. 6: 11. Gen. 43: 14, "M>2u3 "Mb>y 7WND, in case T 
shall be bereaved, then am I bereaved ; (an expression of resignation in a 
doubtful case). 

G, Perrect 1x connection. In all the cases thus far, the 
Perfect has been considered independently of its connection 


232 § 124. use OF THE PERFECT. 


with other foregoing verbs. But not less various are its mean- 
ings, when it is connected by a Vav (1) with preceding verbs, 
( Vav consecutive). In such a case, it attaches to itself the time 
and mode of the preceding verb, and also throws forward the tone, . 
see § 48 b, 3. In such a case it stands, 

(a) Most frequently for the future, when an Imperf. (Fut.) 
precedes. 

E. g. Gen. 24: 40, Jehovah (72) will send his angel, 3273 731, and 
he will make prosperous thy way, lit. and then he prospers thy way. Judg. 
6:16. 1 Sam. 17: 32, [passive]. The future here goes over into quiet descrip- 
tion by means of the Perfect; and that Perfect is explained by the princi- 
ple developed in No. 4 above. 

(b) Present Subjunctive, when the preceding form of the Im- 
perf. has this meaning, (according to ” 125, 3). 


E. g. Gen. 3: 22, D2xt mpby tn moth 42, that he may not put forth 
his hand and take and eat, ‘Tit. “and yes hd takes and eats.’ Gen. 32: 12, 
19: 19. Num. 15: 40. Is. 6: 10. 

(c) For the Imperative, when the Imper. precedes. 

E. g. Gen. 6: 21, mbON1 42 NP, take for thyself and collect together, 

lit. and then thou dost collect; Gen. 27: 43, 44. As in lett. a. above, the 


command here goes over into a description of what is to be done. Some- 
times the Vav (') is separated from its Perfect, Ps. 22: 22. 

(d) For the past or the present, when either a preceding Perf. 
or Imperf. has such a sense. 

Nore 1. The Perfect, with Vav consecutive, may relate to the future, 
not only when a future verb precedes, but in case there is any other proper 
indication of the future. E.g. Ex. 16: 6,7, npsim aay, at evening ye 
shall know; Ex. 17:4, ‘Yet a little time, ~pbos, and they will stone me ;’ 
1 Sam. 20: 18. 

The usage goes still further, and extends even to cases where there are 
no indications of the future ; for the Perf. with Vav may stand, (a) Where 
a reason or ground of a thing is given; or (b) Where a condition is de- 
scribed ; then may follow the Perfect in the sense of a future, or Imper. 
For the letter (a), see Num. 4: 14, 24, Because another spirit is in him, 
senna, so will [lead him, etc. Even without any causal particle, may 
this construction take place; as Gen. 20: 11, ‘ There is no fear of God in 
the land, "29533 and so they will kill me; Gen. 45: 12, 13. Ex. 6: 6. 
Comp. Ps. 25: 11, ‘For thy name’s sake, M204, so wilt thou forgive, or 


so forgive. 
For the letter (b), above: Gen. 33: 10, ‘If I have found favour, mMp>! , then 


§ 125. use OF THE IMPERFECT. 233 


take, ete. Even without any conditional particle in the sentence, (§ 152, 
4. a); Gen. 44: 22, ‘Should he forsake his father, ma; then will he die ;? 
Gen, 28: 29. 42:38. So Is. 6:7, ‘See! this has touched thy lips, "01, and 
so departs, etc.’ 

To a great variety of declarations in the present, are appended clauses 
beginning with the Perfect and Vav. consec.; e. g. Judg. 13: 3, ‘Thou 
art barren, m7") ream), but thou shalt conceive and bear a son; 1 Sam. 
9: 8, ‘Here is the fourth of a shekel, sanz and Iwill give it.— So in re- 
spect to wish or desire; as Ruth 3:9, ‘Tam Ruth, MYID1 spread there- 
fore, etc’—So as to questions; Ex. 5: 5, ‘Many are the people of the land, 
Dmx onavim, and will ye leave them to their ease? Gen. 29:15. 1 Sam. 
25: 10, 11. 

Nore 2. A very frequent form of prophetic language is M754, and it 
shall come to pass, (like "7175, and it was, in narration); and this is used, 
not only when Futures precede, but also when they do not, (see Note 1); 
specially when some assignation of time is added; as Is. 7: 18, Dia T5734 
paws sant. 

§ 125. 
Use of the Imperfect. 


Although the meaning of the Imrerrecr is almost more ex- 
tensive than that of the Perfect, yet has the language here at- 
tained to a more defined expression of the modal relations, by 
means of abridging and lengthening the form of the Imperfect 
($48), for the sake of marking the passive and Hortative ($126). 
Vav consecutive, moreover, is here employed in a very compre- 
hensive and significant way, (§ 1266). Yet the abbreviation in 
question, as has already been remarked, is not orthographically 
perceptible in all the forms; and besides this, there are variations 
of usage, so that in almost all cases where the abridged form of 
the Imperfect is employed, the usual form also occurs instead 
of it. 

The Imperfect forms, in general, the direct contrast of the 
Perfect, and accordingly designates that which is incomplete, that 
which is becoming so or so, or that which is futwre. It designates 
also that which is in a continued state, which is progressive, in 
every department of time, even of the past; see §47.n. Ac- 
cordingly it stands: 

1. For the Future simply. 

E. g. Gen, 9:11, 5322 ‘359 Matt Nb, there shall no more be a flood. In 
narration, the Imperfect is used for that which is future in respect to a point 

30 


234 § 125. use oF THE IMPERFECT. 


of time in the past; as 2 K. 3: 27, ‘He took the first born, 3" “UN, 
who should reign, ete. 


2, As frequently for the Present. 


E. g. 1K. 3: 7, sox x5, I know not; Is. 1: 18, do1% 8d, I cannot; © 
Gen. 37: 15. 

Tn particular does the Imperf. designate abiding state or cir- 
cumstances, which now exist, and will continue to be as they 
are. (The Perfect designates the same, also, but less frequently, 
§ 124, 3. a. b). Consequently general truths may be designated 
by the Imperfect. 

E. g. Gen. 43: 32, ‘For the Egyptians 4:5255 8>, could not eat with the 
Hebrews; Job 4:17, ‘Can man be just (PI¥4) with God ? Job 2: 4. Prov. 
15: 20, ‘ A wise son 28 Maen will make glad—makes glad—his father 7 
and so very often in Job and Proverbs. 

Often, in the same formula, both Perf. and Imperf. occur together; yet 
not exactly in the same sense; e. g. Job 1:7, Siam iN, whence comest 
thou? Gen. 16: 8, MX2 Hra"N, whence art thou come? 


&. ‘To designate a series of relations, which in the Latin are 
expressed by the Subjunctive, specially the Subj. Present, viz. 
the future, or what will take place according to our opinion, or 
in accordance with a dependency on other circumstances. Con- 
sequently, 

(a) For the Subjunctive, preceded by such particles as that, 
that not, (ut, ne), viz. WR, "D, 52>, 59, that, in order that.* 

EF. g. Gen. 11: 7, ssoui XD TN, that they may not understand ; Gen. 
38: 16, ‘What dost thou give me "38 xian °D, that thou wilt come to me? 
Deut. 4:1, 3°79 W322, that ye may live. In like manner after 2; e. g. 
Han mbuin 5B, lest he put forth his hand, Gen. 3: 22. 

(b) For the Optative ; in which case the prolonged and 
abridged forms are peculiarly appropriate (§ 126, 1.2). Often 
with the particle 82.7 

E. g. pin tan", let the day perish! Job 3: 3, 5, 6,8. 6:9. N2-"7232, O 
that it might come to an end! Ps. 7:10; W732 Na, Let thy servant 
speak now ! 

* When these particles have another meaning, this construction with the Imperf. 
is superseded ; e.g. 422 because, with the Perf, Judg. 2: 20. So with zy because, 
Gen. 34: 27. 

+ This particle gives to the verb the stamp of request, wish. Respecting its use in 
the first person, see § 126, 1. 








§ 125. usE oF THE IMPERFECT. 235 


But still, the full normal form is sometimes employed, even where an 
abridged form exists; e. g. Gen. 1: 9, Mx Im}, And let (the dry land) ap- 
pear! Comp. Gen, 41: 34, AN 3x; Job 3. 9. 

(c) For the Imperative ; and in negative commands (forbid- 
ding) with 8>, it is always employed. 

E. g. Ex. 20: 13, seq., M49 Nd, thou shalt not kill, etc. When the 
negative >X is used, it expresses warning, or a wish, or opinion, that this 
or that should not take place; as Gen. 46:3, Nt°m >, be not afraid! 
Job 3: 4. 6: 7. 

Here, moreover, in connection with >8, properly belongs the 
Jussive, and then the abrideed form of the Imperf. is in place. 
In like manner is it employed for expressing the ¢hird person of 
the Imper.; and for the Imper. of the Pussive, so far as peculiar 
forms therefor are wanting in the language, (§ 46). 

E. g. "ix “Hn, let there be light! Gen. 1:3; mvan, let him be killed, 
Ex. 35: 2. Comp. § 126, 2. 

(d) For the so-called Potential mode, where can, may, must, 
are to be expressed. 

E. g. Gen. 2: 16, dsm DSN , thou mayest freely cat ; Prov. 20: 9, 28" "72, 
who can tell? Gen. 43: 7, 532 245, could we certainly know? 

4., Into the sphere of the Past the Imperf. sometimes goes; 
principally in the following cases: : 
(a) After the particles ts ¢hen* and 512 not yet, 0>%2 before. 

E. g. Josh. 10: 12, prdint mam 18; Gen. 2: 5, ayn one, while tt yet 
was not; Jer. 1:5, sm pina, before thou camest forth ; (Comp. | Sam. 
3: 7, where the Perf. and Imperf. are in the same sentence). 

(b) Very often, when continued, constantly repeated, actions 
or usages, and customary action, are spoken of; (like the case 
of the Imperfect in Latin and French). The repetition or cus- 
tomary doing of a thing stands connected of course with the 
idea of something incomplete, something which is sti/l in the 
progress of development ; and this belongs to the Imperfect. 

E. g. Job 1:5, so mgs did Job continually ; 22: 6,7, 8. 29: 12, 13. 
Judg. 14: 10, 1 Sam. 1: 7. 1 K. 5: 25, Is. 10: 6. [6:2 bis]. Ps, 32:4. 42: 5. 
[al. saepe]. 


* When tx means then, and relates to the future, the Imperf. has the meaning of 
the Future; Ex. 12: 48. 


236 § 126. PROLONGED AND APOCOPATE IMPERFECT. 


(c) Sometimes to designate actions which are temporary and 
soon completed, where one would naturally expect the Perfect ; 
at least this is the case among the poets; just as we make use 
of the Present in an animated description of the past. 

E.g. Job 3:3, ‘Let the day perish, 12 7258, in which I was born; Job 
3: 11, ‘Why did I not die, mvax, from the womb ? Job 4: 12, 15, 16. 10: 
10, 11. 

&. For the Latin Imperf. Subjunctive, especially in condi- 
tional sentences, (Modus conditionalis) ; and thus, both in the 
Jore-clause and in the after-clause. 

E, g. Ps. 28: 4, SUN ND... TN wD oa, even if I should walk... I 
would not fear ; Job 5: 8, Way NX, ‘L would make application to God, 
etc.? Job 9: 21, I should not (Pe myself, 21% >, [if I should say 
otherwise]; Job 10: 18, ‘ I should have died, 243%, and no eye would have 
seen me; Job 3: 16. 6: 14, In these cases, atl it the shortened form 
of the Imperf. often occurs. 


§ 126. 
Use of the prolonged and apocopate Imperfect; ( Hortative and 
Jussive). 

1. The Imperfect prolonged by *-, (Hortative),is used al- 
most exclusively in the /irst person, and designates an effort or 
endeavour, directed toward the accomplishment of some action. 
It is employed, 

(a) 'To designate the excitement of one’s self, or the expression 
with emphasis of a determination to do something. 

E. g. Hiya) may, Let me rejoice and be glad! Ps.31:8. So Ps. 2: 
3, Mp2, Let us tear asunder! With somewhat less emphasis in a dia- 
logue with one’s self; as Ex. 3:3, ONIN) NIvATION, Let me turn aside 
now and see! Gen. 32: 21. 


(b) In the expression of a wish or request for liberty to do a 
thing. 


E. g. Deut. 2: 27, mraz, Suffer me to pass through! Num. 20: 17, 
xevmmari, Suffer us now to pass through ! 

(c) To express a determination or design; and commonly 
joined to an Imper. by a Vaw consecutive. 


E. g. Gen. 27: 4, Bring it hither, 42284 and Iwill eat = that I may eat. 
Gen. 29: 21. 42: 34. Job 10: 20. 


§ 126. ImpERFECT WITH VAV CONSECUTIVE. 237 


(d) More rarely in conditional sentences, with an if either ex- 
pressed or understood. 


E. g. Job 16: 6. 11: 17. Ps. 139: 8. 
(e) Besides these cases, it is often used after Vav consecutive ; 
see § 48 0b. 2. 


Nore. In Jeremiah, this form stands for almost every kind of intensity 
and emphasis. Jer. 3: 25. 4: 19, 21. 6: 10. 


2, The apocopate Imperfect (the Jussive), stands otiibinally, 
(a) In the expression of commands and wishes. 

E. g. Gen. 1: 24, xxim, let [the earth] bring forth, (a simple Imperf 
NR "xim means: it shall face. or it produces, Is. 61: 11); joined to the 
Imper. by 1, (No. 1. ¢ above), Ex. 8: 4, 9°n327 make supplication to Jeho- 
vah, "0", that he may remove, lit. and let him remove. Id. in Ex. 10: 17. 
Judg. 6: 30. 1 K, 21: 10. 


(b) In prohibitions; as Deut. 9: 26. Job 15: 3. 

(c) Frequently in conditional sentences, (as predominantly in 
the Arabic), and both in the fore-clause and after-clause. 

E. g. Ps, 45: 12, sem; 104: 20, nvin and "7; Hos. 6: 1, 92; Is. 50: 2, 
rion; Job 10: 16. 13: 5. 17: 2. 22: 28. 1 Sam. 7: 3, bun. 

(d) After Vav consecutive, §48 b, 2. 


Since the jussive form, in a great number of cases, is not orthographi- 
cally distinguished from the common form (§ 48, 4), it may be difficult, in 
some cases, to discover the exact meaning. At all events, the apocopate 
form occurs among the poets, in some cases where the common form would 
make a sense equally good. The Jussive expresses more of a subjective 
feeling, a may, might, should, ought, according as the meaning and con- 
nection of each passage requires. 


§ 126 b. 
Use of the Imperfect with Vav consecutive. 

1. This form, (e. g. =f, §48b, No. 2), stands only when 
connected with a preceding form. In general, narration begins 
with the Perfect, and then goes over into the Imperf. with Vav 
consecutive ; and this is the usual form of historic representa- 
tion. 

E. g. Gen. 4:1, ‘And Adam 237 knew his wife Eve, s$mi sim, and she 
conceived and gave birth to Cain, ete.; Gen. 6:9, 10 seq. 10: 9, 10, 15, 19. 
11: 12, 18—15, 27, 28. 14: 5 seq. 15: 1, 2. 16: 1, 2, 21: 1 seq. 24: 1, 2. 25: 
19, 20 seq. 36; 2—4, 37: 2. 


238 § 126 b. IMPERFECT WITH VAV CONSECUTIVE. 


N. B. The Perfect which must precede, is not always expressed, but 
sometimes merely implied. E. g. Gen. 11: 10, ‘Shem [was] one hundred 
years old, 73>", and he begat,’ etc.; Gen. 10:1. For substance the same 
in the following sentence: ‘On the third day, Nw then lifted he up his 
eyes’ = 77), it came to pass on the third day, etc., Gen, 22: 4. Is. 37: 
18. 6: 1, al. saepe. 

In case of a connection of events with those of the preceding 
narration, the Imperf. with Vav consec. may be, and often is, 
employed; specially is this the case with the transitive formula 
"1; (== xat éyévezo of the Sept. and N. Testament). 


E. g. Gen. 11: 1. 14: 1. 17: 1. 22: 1. 26: 1. 27: 1. 12:1, And God said, 
mins ax. Predominant is this usage, when a limitation of time is in- 
troduced ; as in Gen, 22: 1, ‘And it came to pass ("1175) after these things ; 
Gen. 26: 8. 39: 13, 15, 18, 19. Judg. 16: 16, 25. See the numerous cases 
in Ges. Thesaurus, p. 372, In the same proportion do we find 577) used, 
in respect to the Future, § 124, n. 2. 

N. B. In particular does this form occur, (a) After a fore-clause; e. g. 
1 Sam. 15: 23, ‘ Because thou hast rejected the word of the Lord, 7x2"5, 
so will he reject thee; Gen. 33: 10. So after "> = when; Job 4: 5. (6) 
After a noun absolute; e. g. | K. 12:17,‘ As to the children of Israel, 
po , so reigned Rehoboam over them; 1 K. 9: 21. Dan. 8: 22. In re- 
spect to the like form after a clause with the Inf. or Part., see § 129, n. 2, 
and § 13], n. 2. 

Remark. We must not unfrequently translate the consecutive Vav, by 
that (conj.), in order to give the true sense of the Hebrew, [for the form of 
it we cannot give]. E. g. Ps. 144: 3, ‘What is man, snsami, that thou re- 
gardest hin?’ Comp. Ps. 8, where is the same, with the exception that 
"> supplies the place of 1; Jer. 51: 12, ‘Who art thon, "s7M, that thou 
shouldest be afraid?’ In substance the thought above is as follows: ‘ How 
insignificant is man! And yet thou dost regard him.’ 


In respect to the relation of time, the Imperfect in a sequel 
follows the model of the tense which precedes. 

(a) Itrelates to the Present, in narrations where the preced- 
ing Perfect has the sense of a Present ;' or an Imperfect has the 
same sense ;? or a Participle.® 

(1) Gen. 32: 6. Is. 2: 7,8. Job 7: 9, 14: 2. (2) Job 14: 10. 1 Sam. 2: 29. 
(3) Nah. 1: 4. 2 Sam. 19: 2. Amos 9: 6. 

(b) Less frequently does it designate the future, when a Perf. 
precedes with a Fut. sense ;! or a proper Future ;? or an Im- 
perative.? 


§ 127. oF THE IMPERATIVE. 239 


(1) Is. 5: 15, 16. 22: 7, 8. Joel 2: 23. Mic. 2: 13. (2) Is. 9: 10. Joel 2: 18, 
19. (3) Ps. 50: 6. Gen. 49: 15, (where a clause precedes without a verb); 
and so a noun absolute may precede, Is. 9: 11; or it may be introductory 
to another Future; as in Is. 2: 9. 9: 13, 

In the after-clause, "M71 may stand after x55, (Is. 48: 18, 19 seq.), and 
then it means so that it might be. It may also stand in a conditional 
clause ; as Ps, 139: 11, “ax1, and should I say, etc. Comp. the ordinary 
Imperf., § 125, 5. 


§ 127. 
Of the Imperative. 
1, The Imperative designates not merely command, but also 
warning, request, wish, concession. 

E. g. Hos. 10: 12. 2 K. 5: 22; also with x9, Is, 5: 3. Ps. 8:2. With 5, 
Gen, 23: 13. 2 Sam. 18:23. Is. 45:11. | 

Particularly is it employed in assurances, in earnest promises, 
(like our thow shalt have this or that, which sounds imperatively) ; 
and thence in prophecies. , 

See in Is. 6: 10 — thou shalt harden, etc. Promises: Ps. 128: 5, 5X" 
= thou shalt see; Is. 37:30. 65:18. Ps. 22: 27. Gen. 20:7. Threaten- 
ings: Is. 28: 1 ye shall howl; Is. 23: 2, 4. 10. 30. 13:6. In all these 
cases, the Imperative apprvaches near to the Imperf., which precedes it in 
the same sense; Gen. 20: 7. 45: 18; or follows it, Is. 33: 20. 

In almost all its meanings, the particle 82 is added to the Imper., in or- 
der to give it animation or intensity, (§ 103). Specially is this the case 
when there is a command, whether it be simply to do this or that, Ge. 24: 
2, or whether it be uttered in a tone of objurgation and threatening, Num. 
16: 26. 20:10. Also in case of a request ; as RIT YSN , tell me now. Some- 
times the zronical Imper. takes 83; as Is. 47: 12, N2-"V22,, stand up then. 

2. The uses indicated above explain the peculiar usage of 
two Imperatives, connected by and (1). (a) In a good sense, 
when the first contains a warning, and the second a promise. 
In this case, the first implies the condition, on which the prom- 
ise in the second will be fulfilled, (like divide, et impera). 

E. g. Gen. 42: 18, nmi see mxt, do this, and ye shall live; Prov. 20: 
13, keep open (MP2) thine eyes, O42 2av, and be satisfied with bread, i.e. 
*be watchfully active, and thou shalt have plenty of food. Ps, 37: 27. 
Prov. 7: 2. 9: 6. Job 22: 21. Is. 36: 16. 45: 22. Hos. 10: 12. Amos 5: 4, 6. 


(b) In the sense of threatening ; when the first tronically per- 
mits or enjoins, the second threatens the consequence. 


240 § 128. use OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 


E, g. Is. 8: 9, smn} Day 1245, make an uproar, ye nations, ye shall be 
discomfited ; Is. 29:9. In the second member, in such a case, the Imperf. 
may also stand; as in Is. 6: 9. 8: 10. 1 Sam. 17: 44. 

Nore 1. How far both the Perf. and Imperf. may serve to express com-- 
mand, see § 124, 5. § 125, 3, ¢. 

Nore 2, The assertion by some grammarians, that the Imper. form, in 
several passages, stands for the third person, is incorrect. E. g. Gen. 17: 
10,‘ Every male D2> >41h circumcise for yourselves, i. e. let every male be 
circumcised. But in v. 12 we have >i", as an exchange; and besides 
this, the form 57m is Inf., which gives the same sense, § 128, 4, b. Ps. 
22: 9, 53 Inf. (not Imper.). Gen. 31: 50. Judg. 9: 28. Is. 45: 21, are all ac- 
tual Imperatives of the second person. 


§ 128. 
Use of the Infinitive absolute. 


The Inf. absolute is employed, in general, (as has been noted 
in § 45), when action is designated, which stands neither in close 
connection with what follows, nor with any noun or particle 
which precedes. Its most important uses will be subjoined. 


In case of such a connection, the Inf. cunst. is of course employed. 
When several Infinitives are linked together in such a case, and if they 
should each have a preposition in order to complete the full construction, 
yet oftentimes only the first one has it, and brevity omits it before those 
Inf. verbs which follow; e. g. ime >2x> for to eat and [to] drink, Ex. 
82: 6. Comp. 1 Sam, 22: 13. 25: 26. Jer, 7:18. 44:17. This case has an 
analogy with that explained in § 119, 3. See also No. 4. a. of the present §. 


1, When it is governed by a transitive verb, and is used as 
an Accusative. 


E. g. Is. 42: 24,7753 2x ND, they would not go; Is. 7:15, 292 O1N’2 IMP 
aiva sims, until he shall learn to reject the evil and choose the good; 
Jer. 9: 4. (N, B. The const. Inf., either with or without a preposition, is 
most frequently employed in such a connection and for such a purpose ;— 
the preposition depending on the construction of the foregoing verb, § 139, 
2}, 

Substantially the rule applies to such cases as Is. 22: 13, ‘See! Joy and 
gladness, (7 mind) "wa diay Nx vind) apa ain, the killing of oxen 
and the ih of sheep, the eating of flesh and the dr inking of wine, 
(mere Accusatives governed by see /) Is. 5:5, ‘I will tell you what I will do 
with my vineyard, 97; yD... inswig TOM, the removing of its hedge 

. the tearing down of its dail [I will]. 


§ 128. use OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 241 


2, When the Inf. stands adverbially in the Accusative, (like 
the Lat. gerund in -do); e.g. 22 well (lit. bene faciendo) ; 
naw much, (lit. multum faciendo). 

In regard to the Acc. as the adverbial case, see § 116. In Arabic, it has 
in this predicament an Acc. ending. Generally the Inf. abs. answers, in 
most cases, to the Acc. of the Inf, (see Nos. 1. 2. 3. of this §, and even No. 4 
is to be traced back to this principle). 

2. When the Infinitive stands connected with a finite verb, 
so as to impart energy to it [energical Inf.]. 

(a2) Most commonly is it put before the finite verb, and it 
marks in general the strengthening or intensity of the verbal 
idea. 

E. g. 1 Sam. 20: 6, "292 Seti Ska, he asked most urgently of me; 
Gen, 43: 3, 72m 525, he strongly rotted: very plain in Amos 9: 8, ‘I 
will destroy it from ie land, 77288 Wat Nb, yet Twill not utterly de- 
stroy; Judg. 1: 28. 

This Infinitive frequently amounts to a mere rendering promi- 
nent an action; a matter which other languages bring about 
merely by tone in utterance, i. e. by emphasis, or by particles ; 
as in case of assurances, and questions full of feeling or ex- 
pressive of astonishment, and also in contrasts. 

E. g. Gen, 43:7, 232 2it, could we certainly know? Gen. 37: 8, 
yby G>an Widen, shalt thou alee reign over us? Gen. 31: 30, F155 
nbn, thou hast undoubtedly come, HHDD22 O22 "2, because thou rhe 
longed much; Judg. 15: 13, F7ON2 nox we will surely bind thee,... 
ym? Nb main}, but certainly we will not kill thee ; 3; 1Sam. 9:6. 2 Saini 
24: 24. Hab. Q: 3. 

(b) When the Inf. abs. stands after a finite verb, this connec- 
tion for the most part designates continuance of action, or the 
lasting’ nature of it. 

E. g. Is. 6:9, 2128 5220, hear ye continually ; Jer. 23:17. Gen. 19: 9; 
wip buen, and he will constantly be acting the gudge. Sometimes 
with two Infinitives; as 1 Sam, 6: 12, iva; 45m 52>, and they went, 
moving along and lowing, i. e. continually lowing as they advanced ; 1K. 
20: 37. For the second Inf, a finite verb may be employed, Josh, 6: 13; 
or a participle in its stead. 

Nore 1. Such is the common usage, when the Inf. is placed after the 
finite verb. But it is not exclusively of such a meaning; for where the 
context does not lead to the idea of repetition and continuance, such an Inf, 


31 


242 § 128. usE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 


is merely energic or intensive. Is. 22: 17, Jer. 22: 10. Gen. 31: 15. 46: 4. 
Dan. 10:11, 13. In Syriac, this Inf. of intensity stands before the definite 
verb; in Arabic, it stands after it. A negative particle commonly stands 
between the two verbs, as Ex. 5: 23; seldom before both, Gen. 3: 4. 

Nore 2. With the derived conjugations, the Inf. abs. is employed, not . 
only of the same Conj., but also the Inf. of Kal; e.g. the same, as Gen. 
17: 13. 40:15; but of a different Conj. as in Gen. 37: 33, 92% F4Y, he ts 
surely torn in pieces; Job 6:2. Or if the Inf. abs. of Kal be not em- 
ployed, another Inf. of the like sense may be used ; as in Gen. 19: 20. 1 K. 
3: 23. 

Nore 3. In respect to continuance af action, (as adverted to in 6. above), 
the verb 925 is often employed in the sense of progressing, continuing, 
and then it expresses constant accession ; e. g. Gen. 26: 13, 5433 71> 5251, 
i.e. and he continually waxed greater and greater, (lit. he advanced, going 
onward, and becoming great); 2Sam. 5: 10. Gen. 8:3, ‘And the waters re- 
turned... 2403 41>, continually retreating, (lit. going on and returning). 
Not unfrequently a participle, [instead of a finite verb], is employed in this 
construction ; e. g. 1 Sam. 2: 26, ‘ The lad Samuel 34 5435 92h became 
constantly greater and better. Similar to this is the French idiom, in le 
mal va toujours croissant; la maladie va toujours en augmentant, i.e, 
increases constantly and becomes worse. 

4., When the Inf. stands, (as it sometimes does), for a finite 
verb, two separate cases are to be distinguished: 

(a) When the finite verb precedes. If, for example, several 
actions following successively are described, then oftentimes, 
specially in the /ater books, only the first verb exhibits tense and 
person; the rest may be of the Inf. form, to which the person 
and tense of the finite must be attached. Comp. §119. 3. 

E. g. in the Perf.; Dan. 9: 5, 704 sa, we have rebelled, and [we 
are] turned back or have revolted ; Gen. 41: “13, a2971, ‘and he made him 
ride in his chariot... ‘in& ima) and he placed him, Ae 1 Sam. 2: 28. 
Jer. 14:5. So with the Imperf. preceding ; Jer. 32: 44, ‘Fields with money 
ip? shall they purchase... 3\n2) and they shall write a bill of sale, 
“3m nin, and they shall seal it, and summon witnesses, etc.’ Num. 
15: 35. 

(b) Without a finite verb. The Infinitive, (which in itself is 
a pure designation of action merely), can, in the way of brevity 
and emphasis, be put for any tense or person whatever of any 
verb, which the sense of the passage demands. 


(a) For the Perfect, in animated narration or description, (like the his- 


§ 129. THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 243 


toric Inf, of the Latin). E. g. Is. 21:5, ny diay mepsn nbs pnben qin, 
they set in order the table, they station the watch, they eat, they drink, 
or to set in order, etc., [this they do]. Hos. 4: 2. (b) For the Imperf,, i. e. 
in the sense of the Future ; 2 K, 4: 43, snin} Di28, ye shall eat and have 
a remnant, (c) Most Shanon tla for the energic Jisteietins (§ 46,n.); e.g. 
sin, observe (= ye shall observe); Deut. 5: 12, “121, remember ; Ex. 
20: 8. Hence plené 5377200) Via8, Deut. 6:17; “Sim Tint, Deut. 7: 18. 
(d) For the hortative ; e. g. Is. 22: 13, ine" biow, let us fae and drink ; 
1 K, 22: 30, xia) wenn, let me clothe myself jt come. 

Nore 1. In connection with a subject named, the Inf. seldom stands for a 
Jinite verb; as in Job 40; 2. Ezek. 1: 14. 

Nore 2. Rare are the examples, where the shorter Inft form is used in 
these cases. Such, however, are some common Jnfinitives const., which 
have an adverbial sense, or are like the Latin Gerund in —do; e.g. Is. 
60: 14, ‘ They shall come to thee mind, in a bending posture,’ curvando. 
In Neh. 1: 7, 52>2m dan, exactly as the Inf. abs.; Ps. 50: 21, S35x ning; 
Ruth 2: 16, bind; Num, 23: 25, 2PM ND ap. 


§ 129. 
The Infinitive construct. 


EH, The Inf. const., as a verbal noun, can be regarded as hav- 
ing all the relations,of nouns in respect to case, (see § 115). 
Consequently, it may be, 


(a) In the Nom., as the subject of a sentence ; 

E. g. Gen. 2: 18, ‘Not good ¥33> pINn ninn is the being of the man 
alone.’ 

(b) In the Genitive ; Gen. 29:7, 50x my, the time of gathering. Here 
also belongs the case, where the Inf. const., like a mere noun, is governed 
by a preposition ; see No. 2 below. 

(c) In the Accusative; as 1K. 3: 7, Nin3 MR¥ Say ND, I knew not 
going out or coming in. (Sometimes the Inf. abs. is employed in the same 
way; § 128, 1). 

2, When the Inf. is constructed with prepositions, (as in Greek 
éy t@ evar), We must often translate into English by using a con- 
junction with a meaning accordant with the preposition. 


E. g. Num. 35: 19, ia~ivs2, when he lays hold upon him; Jer. 2: 35, 
TIS 22, because thou sayest ; Gen. 27:1, ‘His eyes were dim, nixy2, so 
that he could not see,’ (ya before a noun, in the sense of removing from and 
lack or want of). The Lexicon is the proper source of information, as to 
the use of the various prepositions. 


244 § 129. THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 


3. In respect to the relation of time, the Inf. may express that 
of the Past. (See onthe Part., § 181, 2). 


E. g. Gen. 2: 4, ox, when they were created, (lit. in the being-created 
of them). 

Nore 1. mivs> non, (also with the omission of M"7), (1) Means, he ts 
about to do, desirous to do, or ready to do; (as we say in English: I am 
to write, to walk, ete.). E.g. Gen, 15:12, xin> wauin sin, and the sun 
was about to set. Hence this Inf. is used as a circumlocution for the Im- 
perf.; eg. 2 Chron, 26: 5, pdx wa7> “i, and he sought unto God ; 
in Is. 38: 20, without n2n, Hint 723 shin , hoes saves me; and the 
like in Is, 21: 1. Ece. 3: 15. Prov. 19: 8, comp. 16: 20. (2) It means: It is 
to do, or to be done, (like our [am to give, ete.) ; as in Josh. 2:5, "2U3 7 
“io>, and the gate was to shut, i.e. to be shut. Commonly the verb m5 
is omitted in cases of this kind; as in 2 K. 4: 13, mivz> 2, what ts to be 
done? 2 Chron. 19: 2. (3) He was able to do; (comp. the Latin non est 
solvendo); as in Judg. 1:19, wind X>, he could not dispossess them. 
(The text here renders this sense necessary ; and it is fully expressed in 
Josh. 17: 12. Comp. "> j9x, non licet mihi ; and the Syriac "> mb = non 
possum. See Agrell, Supp. Synt. Syr. p. 9.10). 

Nore 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass from the Inf. construc- 
tion, of which we are treating, to that of the definite verb; and before this 
Inf. we must supply a conjunction which will correspond to the preposi- 
tion before it. So a Perfect is joined to such an Inf. in Amos 1: 1], 
nvm mm... ipt >2, because he persecuted... . and destroyed all his 
compassion ; Gen. 27: 45, (where is an Imperf. with Vav. consec.); Gen, 39: 
18, NIPRI "DIP wend "nm, and it came to pass, when I lifted up my 
voice and cried ; Is. 30: 12. 38:9. Most commonly such an Inf. construe- 
tion is followed by a clause with an Imperf. of the definite verb, which is 
preceded in the clause by a 4; e. g. Is. 5: 24, 10: 2. 13: 9. 14: 25. 30: 26. 
Comp. a like sequel of the Part. and a definite verb, § 131, n. 2. 


§ 130, 
Connection of the Inf. construct with Subject and Object. 

4. The Infinitive can be constructed with the case that be- 
longs to the definite verb; and in transitive verbs, therefore, it 
has an Ace. of object. 

E. g. Num. 9: 15, jDwWan-nmsy oxpn, to erect the tent; 1 Sam. 19:1, 
TIITMN mean, to kill David; Gen. 18: 25, pty mean, to slay the 
righteous ; 1K. 12:15, 15: 4, 2K, 21: & Ezek. 44: 30. Lev. 26: 15, miivy 
smiy7ba-m , to do all my commands ; Prov. 21: 15, beta nivy,* to do 


* Tn cases like this, one might say, that the second noun (moBw) is in the Gen. 


§129. INF. CONSTRUCT WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 245 


right. So, also, with the Acc. of the Pronoun; as 4m8 oypn 42>, to 
establish thee, Deut. 29: 12; "229m, to bring me back, Jer. 38: 26; 
s2n7n>, to kill me, Ex. 2: 24, See also 1 Sam, 27: 1. 5:10. 28: 9. 1 Chr. 
12: 17. 

N. B. A verbal noun, (analogous to the Infinitive), governs the Acc. in the 
same way; e.g. Din my O27, the knowledge of Jehovah, (lit. to know the 
Lord), 1s. 11: 9. 30: 28. 


2. When the Inf. has a subject, it is usually put imme- 
diately after the verb; in part as a noun in the Gen., (because 
the Inf. is used as a const. noun); and in a still greater part, as 
a Nominative. 


E. g, 2 Chron. 7: 3, as a Gen., UN m4, the descent of the fire; Ps. 
133; 1, 3132 5a DIM MaW, the dwelling cry hey ae as even unity, i. e. they 
live together; Ex. 17:1, «There was no water O32 mimw> for the drinking 
of the people,’ i. e. for the people to drink. In a special manner, are Infini- 
tives so constructed, when they have a feminine termination; e, g. Is. 47: 9, 

S72 FIIAN ryvexsa, in the great multitude of thine enchantments; Gen, 
19: 16, sm23 mins "rbena, in the compassion of Jchovah toward him. The 
like with ‘suff. pronouns ; as Ps, 4: 2, 4, "N"p2, when I call, (lit. in the 
calling of me); but in Ezek. 47: 7, we have sais anomalously for "3522 ; 
[perhaps not, as "2— may be the Acc. of object = when he brought me 
back ; so Cocceius]. 

On the other hand, the ‘Genitive is out of question in such cases as fol- 
low. We must rather put them in the Nominative. FE. g. Ps. 46: 3, "2a 
VIN, (not "7273 as stat. const. would make it), when the earth shakes ; 
Deut. 25: 19, ci mint mma, when the Lord shall give you rest; 2 Sam. 
19: 20, i2>->x ban pied, ‘that the king should lay it to heart, i. e. con- 
sider it. It is eUbeintally the same case, when the Inf. is separated from 
its subject by some intervening word, (which sometimes happens); as Judg. 
9: 2, my Ure oon Sia on... Ur orsad boa biben, whether seventy 
men rule over you... or i one man only y rule over you; Ps. 76:10. 
See No. 3. 


3. When the Inf. has both subject and object, normally the 
subject follows next after the Inf., and the object takes the second 
place. When the object is in the Acc., then the subject (as in 








after MiWy used as a verbal noun, ({ 112, 2); which is the usual construction in Ara- 
bie. But since M& (sign of the Acc.) is used before nouns in the same predicament 
as 2552, and the preceding word never shortens its vowels, (as a const. noun should 
do), it seems clear that the Hebrews treated such cases as verb and Accusative. Comp. 
Nos. 2. 3., in the sequel. 


246 § 131. UsE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 


No. 2 above) is sometimes in the Gen., but mostly in the Nom- 
inative. 

The Genitive, (predominant in Arabic), shows itself in Deut. 1: 27, 
NMR Mim mwa, because Jehovah hateth us ; Is. 13: 19, pits n2Bi7729 - 
DIO“MN, as God destroyed Sodom; Gen. 39: 18, *>4p “a"h>, when I 
lifted up my voice. 'The Nominative has a place in constructions like 
the following: Is. 10: 15, "va"ya-my DIY H-wWND, as if the staff could wield 
those who lift if up, (where we must have the form 5372, if the subject, 
bau, were in the Genitive). Commonly we must regard the subject as in 
the Nom.; e.g, 1K. 13:4, psnby why saan ybian views, when the king 
heard the word of the man of God; Gen, 13: 10. 2 Sam. 3: 11, Ezek. 37: 
13. 

Remark. In case the verb governs a double Accusative, it may be re- 
tained here; e. g. MNI~DD“MN FR ODN Tin ony , after God has made 
thee to know all this, Gen. 41: 39. 

N. B. Rare is the case, (but it still occurs), where the object is placed 
next after the Inf., and then the subject behind this, as a kind of supple- 
ment; e. g. Is. 20: 1, fisqo ink Mousa, when Sargon sent him; Ezra 9: 8, 
ae ny NM, that our God eer enlighten our eyes; 2 Chron. 
12: 1, O34 nists oN, when Rehoboam confirmed the kingdom; Is. 5: 
24. 29: 23. Ps. 56: 1. 


§ 131. 
Use of the Participle. 


1. The only active form of the Participle now extant, at- 
taches to itself the meaning of all tenses. 


E. g. ra dying, Zech, 11:9; who is dead, dead ; who will die, Gen. 20: 
35; so 5B), who falls, is Wale will fall; mis, about to do, Gen. 41: 25. 
Is. 5: 5. Most frequent of all is the sense of the Patten 

Passive Participles stand, therefore, for the Latin participial in -dus ; 
e. g. N12, metuendus, Ps. 76: 8; >2t2, laudandus, Ps. 18: 4. 


2. So far as the Participle stands for a finite verb, and is the 
predicate of a sentence, it designates, 


(a) Most frequently the Present. (In Syriac and Chaldee, this is its 
predominant use). E. g. Ecc. 1: 4, 83 "433 Jen 3, one generation de- 
parteth, and another generation cometh; Ecce. 1: 7, 0922 pxbmyn-bp, 
all the streams flow; Gen. 4: 10. In case a pronoun is the subject, it is 
either put before or after the participle, as "258 N27, I am afraid, Gen. 
32: 12; oNwt DMN we are afraid, 1 Sam. 23: 3; or else the appropriate 
pronoun is suffized to Ws (is), as Judg. 6: 36, win Fr or, if thou deliv- 


§ 132. coNSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 247 


erest. In negative sentences, }"8 (there is not) is employed in the same 
way as ws; e. g. Gen, 43: 5, mbwa AN ON, if thou wilt not let go. 

(6) The Future; (conceived of as Present, § 124, 4). E. g. Is. 5: 5, ‘I 
will tell you MY ax WR mx, what I do, i. e. will do’? Gen. 19: 13. 41: 25. 

(c) The Past ; very frequently in connection with other contempora- 
neous actions. E. g. Job 1: 16, 8a Hy] "aT. Ht Tid, while this one was 
speaking, another came; Gen. 42: 35. Ex. 2:6. Toae: 13:9. 1 Sam, 17: 23. 
But also out of such a connection, and directly for the praeterite Perfect ; 
as Deut. 4: 3, MINAH Day, your eyes which have seen.* 

Joined with the verb mn, the Part. constitutes a circumlocution for the 
Imperfect ; e. g. Job 1:14, ‘The cattle nivsn sh, were ploughing ;’ Gen. 
15: 17. Judg. 1: 7. 16: 21. (In Syriac, the Part. with its pronoun forms the 
usual Present ; when the verb of existence is added, it forms the Imperfect). 

Nore 1. In all three cases under No. 2, in animated reference to any- 
thing, 425 see/ is prefixed, (a) Where the Part. stands for the Present; as 
Gen. 16: 11, 595 32h, behold thou art ie child; Gen. 27: 42. Ex. 34: 11. 
(6) For the noe Gen. 6: 17, Is. 3: 1. 7: 14. 17: 1. (c) For the past; 
as Gen. 37: 7. 41: 17. 

Nore 2, A construction beginning with a participle, very frequently 
goes over into a finite verb, before which the pronoun “x is to be sup- 
plied, which lies in the participle. Thus in Is. 14: 17, the sentence begins 
with the Part. 5 (who maketh), and goes on with 055; Is. 43:7, Part. and 
Imperf. (= Present). Batoes these clauses, (1) may be inserted or omit- 
ted; e. g. Is. 5: 8, ‘Ip. "35472 without \ between. So in ys. J1, 23, 
and 31: 1. 1 Sam, 2: 8. Py 19: 26. With | between, Gen. 27: 33, 585 
755 3945 Gen. 35: 3. Ps. 18:33. (Altogether analogous to this, is the be- 


ginning of a sentence with the Jnf. and its continuance by a finite verb, 
§ 129, n. 2). 


§ 132. 
Construction of the Participle. 


J. When the participle is accompanied with a designation 
of the object of action, it may be constructed in two ways; viz. 


(a) Asa verbal governing the case after it, either directly, or by means 
of a preposition before the object; e. g. 1 Sam. 18: 29, ty3-mx AN, hating 
David; 1 K. 9: 23, bya otha, who rule over the people ; Ezek. #2, 
nea wand, clothed with linen Ape Ms 

(6) The Part. takes the construct form and is followed by a Genitive of 
the object, (§ 110, 2); e. g. Gen. 22: 12, ony x, fearing God; Ps. 84: 





* Respecting the article placed before the predicate here, see § 108, 3,n. [See al- 
so the remarks on the same, which call in question the use of the genuine article in 
such cases]. 


248 § 133. MopDE OF EXPRESSING THE OPTATIVE. 


5, a vas, the dwellers of thy house; Ezek, 9:11, 5°17 0412 , clothed 
with linen garments. 

N. B. The last construction with the Genitive occurs only in the parti- 
ciples of active verbs (§ 135). To these belong such cases as Gen. 23: 10, 
“zu "xa, those who enter the gate; although Nia, meaning to enter, 
usually takes the Acc. after it, (comp. ingredi portam). Moreover even 
where a verb occurs which takes a preposition after it, its participle, by 
ae oe of the substantive quality sometimes takes a simple Genitive af- 
ter it; e.g. 1M2P, MAP, who rise up against him —me, are employed in- 
stead of Mee. pyop, Ps, 18: 40, 49. Deut. 33: 11. 

2, The verbal relation and power of the Part., in No. 1 above, 
extend to suffix-pronouns as well as nouns. 


E. g. 922, who created me, with verbal suff. in the Acc.; but with the 
Genitive construction it reads 18>, my Creator. 


§ 133. 
Mode of expressing the Optative. 


That for the expression of the Optative the Imperfect is em- 
ployed, and specially with the ending (5—) and with the parti- 
cle 82, we have already seen, § 125, 3, b. Here we shall only 
add two other methods of expressing it by circumlocution. 

i. By questions expressive of @ wish. 

E. g. 2 Sam. 15: 4, opid syar7 a, lit. who will appoint me judge? = 
O te one would appoint me, ete. ! A 9: 20, "993 537 BSATMS M2 72, 
who will give this people into my hand? —O that some one would give, 
etc.! Ps. 55: 7. Job 29: 2. The phrase jm" 2 often remits the sense of 
giving, and merely = utinam, I would that, etc. But it may be connect- 
ed, (a) With an Acc. ; as in Deut. 28: 67, 292 jn va, O that it were eve- 
ning! (b) The Infinitive; as Ex. 16: 3, s3m%0 4m “2, O that we had 
died! (c) With the finite verb, (either with or aioe 1); Deut. 5: 26, 
by? My O33 mm ym, O that they had such a heart in them! Job 
23: 3. 


2. By the particle 68 if, O if, % O if; specially the last. 
E. g. Ps. 189: 19. In Gen. 17: 18, the Imperf. follows the particle; in 
Ps. 81: 14, the Participle; in Gen. 23: 13, the Imperative. When the 


Perfect follows, it expresses a wish that something might have taken place ; 
as Num. 20: 3, 52375 >, would that we had died! 


§ 134. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 249 


§ 134. 
Persons of the Verb. 


1. The persons of the verb are sometimes employed in an 
irregular way, in regard to gender. 


E. g. The masc. (as the nearest and most ready gender) instead of the 
JSem.; as Ezek. 23: 49, 22377; Ruth 1: 8, ony, (both addressed to fe- 
males); and so Is, 57: 8, mazmi (for second fem.), comp. Cant. 2: 7. See 
also the analogy in the use of pronouns, § 119, n. J. 


2, The third person is frequently employed in what is eall- 
ed an impersonal way; most frequently in the masculine form. 

E. g. "1, and it came to pass; i> “% and 15 “325, it troubled him; 
i> om and i> om, there was indignation to him. Sometimes with a fem. 
verb; as 3172 "xm, and it was troublesome to David, 1 Sam. 30: 6. Ps. 
50: 3. Jer. 10: 7. (In Arab. and Ethiopic, the masc. is employed in the 
like way; in the Syriac, the feminine). 

2. The third person with an indefinite subject, i. e. one, some 
one, some, etc. 


E. g.(a) By the third pers. singular ; as 87 one called — named, Gen. 
11:9. So Gen. 16: 14. 1 Sam. 19: 22. 24: 11. (b) By the therd person 
plural; as Gen. 41: 14, ins, and they ( = some) brought him hastily 
in, for one brought, or he was brought. (c) By the second person; as in 
Is, 7: 25, Pr2Y NIaN-ND, lit. chow shalt not go there, but = one shall not 
go, ete. So the frequent expression 7X3 42, or simply W835, lit. until thou 
comest, etc. = until one comes, ete. (d) By the use of the Passive; as 
Gen. 4: 26, Sp> bmn 3s, then was made a beginning to call, etc.* 

Nore 1. The case (a) above occurs once with the Nom. xh supplied, 
viz. in 1 Sam. 9: 9, ‘ Beforetimes in Israel one said,’ U-x vax. In poe- 
try, the Pres. participle of the verb that is expressed, is either supplied or 
understood ; e. g. Is. 16: 10, 458 IAN, the treader shall tread ; 1s. 28: 4. 
Jer. 9: 3. Ezek. 33: 4. (The last is common in Arabic). 

Nore 2. When emphasis is attached to the pronoun, it is expressed and 
put before the verb; as "M202 "28, Ps. 2:6. So Judg. 15: 8. 1 K, 21: 7. 
Ps. 139: 2. Sometimes the pronoun follows the verb; as Judg. 15: 12. 
But the Jater writers employ this latter method, without any special empha- 
sis; e. g. Ecc. 1: 16, "34 "M35; Ecce. 2: 11, 12, 13, 15, 20. 8: 15. 

Nore 3. Specially in poetry and prophecy a transition from one person 








* Not unfrequently the third pers. plural, (like dicunt), is to be regarded as = the 
passive (i.e.dicitur). E. g. Job 7:3,‘ Nights of woe have they assigned to me’ = have 
been assigned, viz. by God. So Job 4:19. 17:12. 32:15. 34:20. In Chaldee this 
is very common, see Dan. 2: 30. 3: 4. 5: 3, al.; and so in Syriac. 


32 


250 § 135. VERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 


to another is common, even in the same sentence. E, g. Is. 1: 29, ‘For 
they shall be ashamed of the oaks which ye fondly love, (the same persons 
are the subject in both verbs); Is. 61: 7. Deut. 32: 15, 17. Mic. 2:3. In Job 
13: 28, the third person is probably used dextixwg for the first ; comp. Job | 
6: 21 (with the reading 4). 


§ 135. 
Verbs with the Accusative. 


All verbs transitive in general govern the Accusative, (§ 116). 
In regard to these, we may suggest, 

U. That many verbs are capable of being used either with 
or without an object. 


[In English we have a multitude of verbs, which are capable of being 
employed in a transitive and intransitive or neuter sense, some of which 
correspond to the Hebrew, and some do not]. ‘Thus in Hebrew, 32 is fo 
moan and bemoan ; 327, to dwell, and also to inhabit ; x7, to go forth, 
also to go out of, quit, Gen. 44: 4, 

Nore 1]. Several verbs of this kind express a kindred noun with and af- 
ter them; e. g. "2M M2 = voc vocov; NYY VI = Bovietew Bovdijy. 
This is most frequent, when the noun receives any aecessary explanations ; 
e. g. Gen, 27: 34, T7725 N53 pss prs, and he cried out [with] a loud 
and bitter cry. Gen. 27: 33. Zech. 1: 14. 1 Chron, 29: 9, 

Nore 2. Verbs which indicate flowing or streaming, take, in poetry, 
the Acc. of that with which they flow or stream; as Lam. 3: 48, ‘Mine eye 
flows down b'2 "nb , streams of water, (Acc.). Joel 4: 18, ‘The hills 
stream milk ; so 212, to flow, Jer. 3:17; 523, to trickle, Joel 4:18; ya, 
to float along, Is. 10: 22. Bolder still in Prov, 24: 31, ‘See! it [the field] 
map bp maz shoots up altogether [with] thorns. Comp, in Greek, 
noogéey VOog, Hym. in Apol. 2. 202. So daxgua orate. 

Nore 3. Poetical usage is it, when verbs signifying to work, to speak, 
or to cry out, take after them the Acc. of instrument, means, or member, 
whereby the action is performed. Plainest for our consideration is the ex- 
ample of crying out ; as Ezek. 11:13, 5433 Dip pot, he cried a loud voice, 
(comp. n. 1), for—with a loud voice; Ps. 109: 2, to speak [with] a false 
tongue; Ps. 3:5, 8IPN Dip, [with] my voice I cry, i. e. loudly; Ps. 66: 17, 
“MN ap "2, [with] my mouth do I cry, i. e. with full mouth, loudly; and so, 
speak [with] the mouth, Ps. 17: 10; [with] the lips, Ps, 12: 3; to labour 
[with] the hand, Prov. 10:4; to help [with] the right hand—hand—sword, 
Ps. 17: 13, 14. 44: 3. 60: 7. 1 Sam. 25: 26, 33. Everywhere with the Ace. 
of instrument. 'The same relations are sometimes indicated by 3 prefixed 
to the noun; e. g. to praise with the mouth, Ps. 89: 2. 109: 30; io suppli- 
cate with the mouth, Job 19: 16. The same usage prevails in Greek; as 


§ 135. vERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 251 


noofuivew moda, maisiy Sicos, (see Porson and Schiifer ad Eurip. Orest. 
1427. 1477; Bernhardy Synt. 110). That the Accus. here is actually de- 
pendent on the verb, is clear by a comparison with n. 1,2 above. So the 
German: eine herrliche Stimme singen, ete. [In English, the Acc. of in- 
strumentality is scarcely to be found, prepositions being employed}. 

The Hebrew, on the other hand, often uses the 2 ef instrument where 
we employ simply the Acc. In both languages we may say: Nod the 
head, and nod with the head; to gnash the teeth, and with the teeth; 
where head and teeth are respectively, first, objects of the verb, and then de- 
signated as instruments. But pa "28, to open with the mouth, we say not, 
but must express it thus: to make an opening with the mouth. So v7» 
nwa , to spread out with the hands (Lam. 1: 17), we do not so express, 
but omit the preposition. To translate literally is very awkward, e. g. to 
make an outspreading with the hands. Comp. >ipa jm and >%p jn2- 
[We follow only the latter.] 


2. Many verbs govern the Acc. on account of the peculiar 
turn of their radical meaning, which in Greek, Latin, German, 
[and English], are connected with other cases. 

E. g. 432 to reply, [Eng. to]; 2°" to plead, [Eng. for]; "2 to publish 
good news, [Eng. to]; 982 to commit adultery, (Eng. with]; 272 to pledge, 
[Eng. give pledge for ; i. e. in Eng. the noun that follows, in all these cases, 
demands a preposition before it]. 

Nore 1. The passive and reflexive conjugations, also, as Niph., Hoph., 
Hithp., may take the Acc., when their meaning is appropriate to govern it; 
e. g. 822 to prophesy, Jer. 25: 13; 203 to surround, Judg. 19: 22; "m>m4, 
I am made to possess, Job 7: 3; >2207 to deceive, Gen. 37: 18; 421205 to 
consider, Job 37: 14. 

Norte 2. In phrases that are very common, the Acc. can be omitted 
without any serious detriment to the sense; e. g. "9D for m3 N73, 1 Sam. 
20: 16. So mb to stretch out, Ps. 18: 17, where 5° is implied. [?] 


2%, There are in Hebrew some whole classes of verbs, which 
take the Accusative after them; [in some cases of which the 
usage is peculiar]. EK. g. 

(a) Verbs of putting on or off; e. g. 82> to clothe with; wip to strip 
off; m3z to dress ornamentally, The Hebrew says: ‘The fields nvind 
sku, are clothed with flocks, [so we are obliged to express it, but the 
sbape of the Hebrew is: put on flocks—a very vivid poetical expression]. 
Ps. 109: 29. 104: 2. 

(6) Verbs expressing fulness or want; e.g. X>2, to be full; yd to 
swarm, (Gen, 1: 20, 21); 23 to be satiated; y78 to overflow, (Prov. 3: 
10); "0m to lack ; 5x5 to be bereaved. Thus: ‘And the land X>2n3... 


202 § 136. vERBS WITH A DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE. 


prix was full [of] them,’ Ex. 1:7. So Gen. 18: 28, ‘perhaps there may 
lack (jn-0n7) of the fifty righteous five, (Acc.); Gen. 27: 45, ‘I shall lose 
(>2wN) even both of you,’ (Acc.). 

(c) Verbs of dwelling not zn a place, but among a people, or with any. 
one; i.e. such as 228, 5. Thus Ps. 57: 5, ou mazwx , I dwell among 
those who send forth flames. Ps, 5: 5. 120:5. 

(d) Verbs that indicate a coming or going to a place; hence Nin with 
the Acc. after it. The Acc. of place (§ 116, 1), seems to stand near to this 
usage. 

§ 136. 
Verbs with a double Accusative. 


J. To these belong the causative conjugations of all the 
verbs which take an Ace. after them in Kal. 

E. g. Ex. 28: 3, mean nn wnxba, Him have I filled [with] the spirit 
of wisdom; Gen, 41: 42, wu "492 im’ wars, and ke made him to be clothed 
[with] garments of jine linen. And so Ps. 18: 33, 48, to gird with; 
Deut. 15: 14, 722, to bless with; Ps. 8: 6, 90M, to let one lack. 


2, Many other verbs in Kal, which have a meaning equiva- 
lent to that double causative meaning. 


E. g. To cover, clothe, Ex. 29: 9. Ps. 5:13. Thence to sow, plant, Is. 
5: 2. 17: 10. 30: 23. Judg. 9: 45.— To anoint, Ps. 45: 8; so to fill, present 
with, to rob of, Ezek. 8: 17. Gen. 27: 37; to put upon one, 1 Sam. 24: 18; 
to ee one thing into another, Gen. 17: 5, So Ex. 20: 5, ot) ims — 

Pp mnwe, and thou shalt Make it into holy oil. In regard to the Pas- 
ee of hed verbs, see § 140, 1. 

We express such a thing by saying: ‘He made thereof holy oil? The 
Hebrews designate the material by the Acc., when, in our language, we 
are obliged to employ of, out of, etc. HE. g. 1 K. 18: 32, paxnmny math 
mara, and he made [out of} che stones an altar, or more literally, he built 
the sys into an altar. Lev. 24:5. The construction is peculiar, when 
the material is put last; as Ex. 38: 3, mum nivy s22->d, all his furniture 
he made [out of] brass. Gen. 2:7, Ex. 25: 39. 36: 14. 

Another species of double Acc. is it, when the second word is exegetical 
of the first; which borders on the adverbial use of the Acc., (§ 116); e. g. 
“rt 'p nan, to smite any one [on] the jaw bone, Ps. 3: 8, comp. Deut. 33: 
11. So wp » nDn, to smite one as to his life, i. e. in a deadly manner, 
Deut. 37: 21. 


§ 137. 
Verbs with Prepositions. 


The Hebrews have no verbs compounded with prepositions. 


§ 188. consTRUCTIO PREGNANS. 253 


Modifications of verbal ideas, which are expressed in other lan- 
guages by compounding verbs and prepositions, are here ex- 
pressed in several ways: 

(a) By verbs of a peculiar use, such as 354, to return [= again]; DIP, 
to go before; n>pP, to meet—go over against. 

(6) By prepositions that follow after the verb; [like our English: put 
down, put up, put in, put off, ete.] E. g. x=p, to call; with > following, 
to call to; with 3, to call on; with “Sn%, to cae after. So be, to fall; 
with >>, to fall upon, to fall away ; with 2D , to fall down ba falae and 
so 72h, to go, with "ny, to go after, Cie 

The more exact statement of these niceties belongs to the Lex., which 
should be consulted for every variation of such a nature. In regard to 
whole classes of words which are constructed with this or that particle, we 
might here speak ; but it is better to remit the subject to the syntax of the 
prepositions, § 151, 3, where more will be said. 

[Remark. Gesenius’ Heb. Lexicon does indeed notice the variety of particles that 
follow either the same verb, or different verbs; and not unfrequently the distinctions 
of meaning that arise from this. But after all, this is a part of Heb. lexicography 
which has never yet been fully and satisfactorily developed. ‘To state the bare fact, 
that a verb is constructed with 2, or >, or x, or >, ete., is scarcely giving the rea- 
der any information of importance. The various Weds of meaning that arise from. 


each of these, (and such there must be), requires the work of Hebrew lexicography 
again to be renewed, until this important matter is completed.—S. | 
® 


§ 138. 
Constructio pregnans. 


This so-named construction occurs, in Hebrew, particularly | 
when a verb, which in itself is not a verb of motion, is connect- 
ed with a particle which implies motion; so that, in order to 
make a full and correct sense, we must mentally supply a verb 
of motion between the verb expressed and the particle, or re- 
gard this verb as comprising, with its leading idea, an adjunct 
idea such as suits the nature of the case. 

E. g. Gen. 43: 33, 58 Fam, to be astonished at, but more exactly, to turn 
toward one with Spearhiah vitae ara Ma 24, mint ms xba, fully to 
follow. after Jehovah, abridged from M35 “748 nahh Nba. So Ps. 22: 22, 
mamas bv 1292, from the horns of the wild bull [save and | answer me, 
[but here the word save is carried mentally forward from the preceding 
otizos, and the matter belongs rather to ellipsis]. Is. 14: 17, nnd ND "ON 
mma, his prisoners he loosed not, (nor sent them) to their home; [but 
we may translate—dismissed not to their home, so that a const. pregnans 
is not necessary]. Ps. 89: 40. Gen. 42: 28. Is, 41: 1. 


» 


254 § 189. CONNECTING OF TWO VERBS IN ONE IDEA. 


§ 139. 
Connecting of tivo verbs in one idea. 


When a verb requires another verb in order to complete its 
idea, then the second stands, 
1, In the Infinitive, either absolute (§ 128, 1), or construct. 


E. g. Deut, 2: 25,31, mm bax, I begin to give; Gen. a 5, Ray ADDN, 
and they continued to hate ; Ex. 18: 23, stay m>2"4, and thou art able to en- 
dure ; Is. 1:14, xivo *mx>2, I am wearied to bear with. 


2. With > before the Injinitive. 


E. g. Deut. 3: 24, mina? nibnn, thou hast begun to show ; Gen. 11: 8, 
mind aban, and they ceased to build Gen. 27: 50, “X22 Mita, thou 
hast hastened to find ; i. e, quickly found, ete. 

N.B. Both of these constructions [with and without >] are predominant 
in prose after such verbs as begin (>a, Dwin), continue, add, go on 
(FrOTM), haste, (i2), cease, (>In, MED), to be complete, (nym), etc. 
Besides such constructions, modality of action is designated, by such verbs 
as 3u"h to do well, main to do much, (mostly in Hiphil); moreover by 
such verbs as to will (Max, y2M), to refuse, (jw), to seek or seek after 
(pa), to be able (55%), also 23" with the meaning to know how to do, and 
to learn (22). To grant or allow may be expressed like miwz> 'B jn? or 
nis © m2, he allowed one to do; Gen. 20: 6, 353 F{ANI Nd, I al- 
lowed thee not to touch. 

It deserves special notice, that > before the Inf., (which, is very com- 
mon in prose), is often omitted in poetry ; e.g. Inf. of Max with > in Ex. 


»10: 27, without it in Job 39: 9. Is. 30: 9. 42: 24.—And the same is true of 


such constructions as take the place of a verb before the Inf., as rind SN, 
it ts not allowed to enter ; but poetically we have 37> j>8, it ts not to be 
computed, Ps, 40: 6. So after "my ready, prepared, a > is usually put 
before an Inf. in prose, while in poetry it is omitted, Job 3: 8. 

<3. With a finite verb following ; and in such a way, 

(a) That the second verb is annexed by a Vav (1), and cor- 
responds to the first, in respect to tense, gender, and number ; 
like our ‘ May he be willing and do this! He will be ready and do 
this 7” — willing to do, ready to do, etc., completing but one idea.* 

E. g. Judg. 19: 6, 3934 N2->Nin, consent now and pass the night ; Josh. 
7: 7.—Gen. 26: 18, “pro suey, lit. and he repeated and dug, = he dug 
again; Gen. 37:7. 2K. 1:11, 13. Gen. 25: 1, mp™... 701", lit. and he 
added and took = he again took; Esth. 8: 6, "77871 5258 N2s7x, lit. how 








* |This plainly appears in the equivalent expression willingly do, readily do.] 


§ 139. CONNECTING OF TWO VERBS IN ONE IDEA. 200 


shall I be able and see = how shall I endure to see; Cant. 2: 3. Ecc. 4: 
1, 7. 

Discourse may begin with the Imperf., and go on with the Perf. and 
Vav consec. (§ 124, 6), like Esth. 8: 6 above. So Deut. 31:12, that they 
learn (Imperf.), and fear (Perf.), i.e. learn to fear, Hos. 2: 11. Dan. 9: 
25. On the other hand; it may begin with the Perf., and go on with the 
Imperf. and Vav ; as in Job 23:3. 


(b) Even the Vav in question may be omitted between the 
two verbs; which omission makes them to combine the more 
closely, and most of all because of the concord as to tense. 


E. g. 2:24, ts bmn begin and take possession = begin to take ete. ; 
Hos. 1: 6, omaN AOIN ND, LT will not add—have compassion = I will no 
more compassionate ; 1 Sam. 2:3, 27m 524M Dx, lit. do not make much 
—speak = do not say much; Is. 53:10, “bnh yan nim, it pleased Jehovah 
—he grieved = it pleased Jebovah to subject him to grief; Lam. 4: 14, 
appr sow ND, lit. they were not able [that] they might touch = they could 
not touch. Job 19: 3. Hos. 5: 11. 

This second [asyndic] construction is more poetical than the one under 
(a); compare p70 with a Vav following, in Gen. 25:1. 38:5; on the 
other hand, without 1, Hos. 1: 6. Is. 32:1. Yet the asyndic construction 
occurs also in prose; as in Josh, 3: 16. Neh. 3: 20. 1 Chron, 13: 2. Dent. 
1: 5. 

(c) In like manner asyndic, but so that the Imperf. follows in 
intimate connection, and in translating we must supply that 
(conj.) before it. 

E. g. Job 32: 22, ni2x “mts Nb, T know not [that] I may flatter, = 1 
cannot flatter; 1 Sam. 20:19, t4m mube, lit. and thou shalt do on the 
third day [that] thou come down = thou shalt come down the day after 
the morrow; Is, 42: 21. 

In Arab. and Syriac this construction is very common;* in the Heb. 
rather unfrequent, but still it is necessary where the second verb must differ 
in tense or number from the first ; e. g. Is. 47:1, 72 389P2 "PIon ND, thou 
shalt not continue, [that] they may call thee = thou shalt no more be 
called; and so Num. 22: 6, 529389 ja-h22 Dzin “DiN, perhaps I may be 
able [that] we smite him, and Ti may drive him out = able to smite. him, 
and drive him out, ete. 


v 





* The Arabian says: Volebat dilaceraret, (he was desirous that he might tear in 
pieces); the Syrian: Volebat tolleret (Luke 18:13), he wished to take away. But the 
conjunction that is more frequently inserted. Even the Latins omit conjunctions in 
the same way as above, in certain cases, as Quid vis fuciam? Ter. So, volo hoc ora- 
tori contingat, Cie. Brut. 84. So in English, J would he shall go, ete. 


256 § 140. coNnsTRUCTION OF THE PASSIVES. 


N. B. All three constructions (lett. a. 6. c.), and also one which is like to 
(c), the Syrians have, in certain verbs placed by the side of each other. 
They can say: Potuit et ivit (lett. a.); potuit ivit (lett. b.); potutt et iret, 
(not in Hebrew); and potuit iret (lett. c.). See Agrell, Supp. Synt. 
Syr. p. 33, 

4. With a Participle. 

E. g. Is. 33:1, TW Fen. (for Fann2, Inf. Hipb. of man, § 20. n.) 
when thou art prepared, a waster, i. e. ready to lay waste; 1 Sam. 16: 16. 

The same is the case with the verbal adjective ; as ‘His eyes nin> snd, 
began dim, i.e. to become dim; and here belongs Gen. 9: 20, tx m3 Sr5 
main, and Noah began [to become] a hushandman. 

Nore |. In many of the above examples, the first verb amounts to only a 
modification of the second, and may be expressed adverbially, as was 
shown above. See Gen. 31: 27, 53> mxam, thou hast fled secretly ; Gen. 
37: 7, the sheaves encompassed and bowed aa = the surrounding sheaves 
bowed down; 2K. 2:10, 5885 mupn, thou hast dealt hardly in respect 
to asking = thou hast asked for a difficult thing. 

Sometimes the verb indicating some connected meaning, is put in the 
second place, (instead of the first); but then it is for some particular reason ; 
as Is. 53: 11, saws nxt, he looks he satisfies himself = he looks with 
satisfaction; Is. 66:11, ye shall suck ye shall be satisfied = ye shall suck 
with or to satisfaction, (for the satisfaction follows the action). Is. 26: 11. 
—Ser. 4: 5, 282 Np, cry out make full = cry out with full voice. 

Norte 2. Different is the construction when verbs take a clause depend- 
ing on "D or "Wx (that), which occupies the place of an Accusative, 
(§ 152,2). These verbs are such as see, know, believe, remember, forget, 
say, think, happen, etc. On the omission of the conjunction before the 
same, see § 152, 4. c. 


§ 140. 
Construction of the Passives. 


1. When a causative conjugation (Piel, Hiph.) governs a 
double Accusative (§ 136), the Passive retains the Acc. of object 
(the remoter one), while the near Acc. goes into a subject of the 
verb, or is comprised in it. 

E. g. Ps. 80: 11, mbx nxn 402, the mountains are covered |by] the 
shadow of it; 1K. 29: 10, mgs nae clothed with garments (lit. be- 
ing made to put on garments); "Ex. 2: 40, ANT2 OHX WR, which was 
shown thee, (lit. which thou wast made to see). 

[The literal translation above makes it plain, why the second Ace., in 


§ 140. consTRUCTION OF THE PASSIVES. 257 


such cases, is preserved along with the passive form of the verb]. But 
there is something peculiar in the construction of the passive, when it is 
used for the impersonal active, (like dicttur = one says, they say); as, 
vice versd, the impersonal active is often used for the passive,* (§ 134, n.). 
In this way we may explain the fact, 

(a) That in the Passive the object of action stands inthe Acc. Thus Gen. 
27: 42, ws “ags-ny npay 3351, and one told Rebeccah the words of Esau, 
(lit. it was told to R., ete.) ; Gert 4:18, S33-my Zi2m> Tb4, and one bore 
(there was born) to Henbéh Trad; Gen. 21: 5, pnist-my 9 “IMS, when 
Isaac was born to him, \it. when there was born, etc.; Gen. 40: 20, pis 
nsqe-msy man, the day on which Pharaoh was 6 lit. the day of the 
being born, etc. ; Gen. 17:5, DISN FOUTMN TWD NIPT ND, one shall not any 
longer call thy name Abram; Lev. 16: 27. Josh. 7: 15. 

(b) We may see why the Passive need not agree with the noun in gen- 
der and number, even when this goes before (§ 144); for it is not, after the 
Hebrew manner of conception, the proper subject of the verb, but the ob- 
ject-Accusative governed by it. E. g. Is. 21: 2, mara nep min, acruel 
vision has one announced to me, more literally, one has been caused to an- 
nounce, etc. ; Dan. 9:24, Seventy weeks are determined (3mm), or lit. has 
one determined. Is. 14:3. Gen. 35: 26. Hos. 10: 6. (See Olshausen, Emend. z. 
A, Test. 8, 24, 25). 


2, The efficient cause, in the Passive, is most frequently de- 
signated by >, andvis therefore really in the Dative, (as in 
Greek). 


E. g. >x>b Wm blessed of or by God (rq Oeq), Gen. 14: 19. Neh. 6: 
1, 7. Prov. 14: 20. More seldom, yet altogether with certainty, it stands 
with 72, (from, indicating origin, derivation), Ps. 37:23. Gen. 9:11, Job 
24: 1. Gen. 6: 13, "282, from the region of, from. Also with 2, Num. 
36: 2. 

An Accusative-instrumental may be employed after a Passive, without 
any preposition, (§ 185, 1. n.3); as Is. 1: 20, SPENT) asm, by the sword 
shall you be consumed; comp. Ps. 17: 13. 

Nore. Several neuter verbs, by a peculiar inflection of their meaning, 
are used in the sense of the Passive ; e. g. 17> felled, (spoken of a forest), 
or sunk down, lit. to descend; so M>3 to ascend, but Lev. 2: 12, to be 
brought or laid upon; in 1 Chron, 27: 24, to be brought unto. So xxis 
yteldeth, Deut. 14: 22. 





* This construction is frequent in the Syriac, (see Hoffm. Gramm. Syr. p. 343 8.), 
and is by no means, with J. D. Michaelis, to be held for a Graecism. 
33 


258 § 141. EXPRESSION OF THE COPULA. 


CHAPTER IV. 


CONNECTION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE PREDICATE. 


§ 141. 
Expression of the Copula. 


When the noun or pronoun which is the subject of a sen- 
tence, is connected with another noun or adjective as the predi- 
cate of the same, they are usually put together without any 
copula. 


E. g. 1K. 18: 21, osndxn mins, Jehovah [is] the God; Gen. 2:4, nEN 
nahin, these [are] the Belealagiblt histories; Gen. 2:12, S807 YASS ony 
aD, the gold of that land [is] good; Is. 31: 2, p2n NIn DA, he too [is] 
wise. The personal pronoun, here and in all such cases, having a reference 
to the predicate, serves to connect the subject and predicate, (§ 119, 2). 

N. B. More rarely is the copula, made by the substantive verb (5s) , ex- 
pressed; as in Gen. 1: 2, And the earth was (Hm%h) desolate and void ; 
Gen. 3: 1, The serpent was (m7) cunning ; so in Gen, 3: 20, al. If the 
subject is a pronoun, and the predicate a participle, 87 or j"& may con- 
stitute a copula, (see § 132, 2. a.). 

As to the gender and number of the copula, comp. § 144. 

Nore. Instead of an adjective for a predicate, we find frequently an ab- 
stract noun, (§ 104, 1. n.2.). Particularly is this the case, when no proper 
adjective has been formed to indicate the meaning which is needed, (§ 104, 2) ; 
e.g. 72 TNIMP, his walls [are] wood, i. e. wooden, Such an expression 
has the same force that it would have if the subject-noun or first noun were 
repeated before the predicate ; e. g. the above expression=73 IMP VHA 
The fuller form is exemplified in Job 6: 12, "Md Day MD oN, zs the 
force of stones my force? Virtually the same in Cant. 1: 15, pais yD, 
thine eyes [are the eyes] of doves. So Ezra 10: 13, nvaes nz, the time [is 
a time] of showers. Also Ps. 45:7, D°>N FROD, thy throne [is a throne | 
of God. 'The next member of the verse exhibits the full form: a scEPTRE 
of righteousness THE scePTRE of thy kingdom. [? This is a doubtful 
construction of nT>x. Thy throne, O God, is etc., (i.e. the Voc.) is the 
sense which the Sept. and the epistle to the Hebrews (1: 8) adopt, and which 
is generally approved, because it seems to be more easy and natural. Still, 
the view of Ges. and Roed. deprives the clause of no important part of its 
real force. Thy throne [is a throne] of God, must mean, that he who 
sits upon it is D>, or else that he occupies the throne_which belongs to 
pind. To whom then does God give up his throne ?]—Specially is there 


§ 142. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 209 


an ellipsis, or omission of the repeated noun, when > is prefixed to the 
predicate; e. g. Ps, 18: 34, mib=ep "ban, my feet [are as the feet] of 
hinds ; Is. 63: 2, 33 7272 5 7733, ‘thy garments [are as the garments] of 
one who treadeth in the wine press; Is, 29: 4. 


§ 142. 
Arrangement of Words in Sentences. Case Absolute. 


1. The most natural arrangement of words in a simple sen- 
tence, in continued unimpassioned discourse, is the following: 
Subject, Copula, Predicate; or, when the predicate is a verb 
with its object, then we have Subject, Verb, Object. Adverbial 
designations, e. g. of time, or place, may stand before or after 
the verb; but a negation stands always immediately before it.* 

The Hebrews, however, put -at the head of a sentence any 
member of it which they designed to make emphatic. 


(a) Tue Vers; Prov, 28:1, they flee, while no one pursucth, the wicked ; 
Gen. 42: 30. This is the predominant construction in case of impersonal 
verbs; as Gen. 1: 14, mink "7, let there be luminaries; Is, 13: 22, 739 
pwn , there cried the jackalls ; ; (like al vient des hommes, there comes some 
men). In particular such an arrangement prevails, whenever a relative 
clause is introduced, either by 1, or “EX, or "D, (the } includes those cases 
where it stands before the Imperf. as : consecutive); e. g. Gen. 3: 1, ‘ All 
the beasts 7 Hiv Wx which the Lord had made ; Gen. 2: 5, wah xd 4D 
™, for the ‘Lord had not caused it to rain. 

"(b) An adjective as predicate; nearly always is this placed first, be- 
cause emphasis and importance are attached to it in this predicament; as 
Gen. 4: 13, "252 5353, great is my sin. 

(c) The object of the verb; after which the verb immediately follows; 
e. g. Prov. 13: 5, lying speech hateth the righteous ; Is. 18: 5, a ripening 
cluster becomes the flower; Is. 8: 14. Gen. 47: 21. Seldom is there an ar- 
rangement like the following: An important word the prophet spake to 
thee, 2 K. 5: 13, Ex. 18: 23. 

(d) Adverbial limitations ; which are followed by the verb; as Gen. 1: 1. 
Josh. 10: 12, sawinr aT Ix, then spake Joshua; Judg. 5: 22. 

N. B. The arrangement—Subject, Object, Verb, (common in Aramaean, 
Dan. 2: 6, 7, 8, 10), is rare in Hebrew, and only in poetry; e. g. Ps. 6: 10, 
mpi cnbam nim, the Lord my prayer heareth. Ps. 11: 5. Is. 18: 18. 
49: 6. See Ges. Comm. on Is. 42: 24. 





* Rarely is the object put between the negation and the verb; as in Job 22: 7. 34: 
23. Ecc. 10:10. In 2K. 5: 26, the subject comes between; in Ps. 6: 2, an adjunct 
limitation. 


260 § 143. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 


In regard to the indeclinable nature of the predicate, see § 144. 


2. The most intensive mode of expressing the substantive 
of a sentence, (be it Genitive, or Acc. of object, or some con- 
nected limitation), consists in putting the same at the head of | 
the sentence, and repeating it again in the form of a pronoun, in 
the place to which it naturally belongs. (Comp. c’est mot, 
qu’on a accuse). 

E. g. Ps, 18: 31, i593 Dvan bun , God—perfect is his way; Ps. 11: 4. 
104: 17. In Ps. 74: 17, winter and summer—thou hast created them; Gen. 
47: 41, the people—thou hast made them to pass over ; Gen. 21: 13. Comp. 
Jer. 6: 19.*—Moreover, the suffix in these cases can be omitted, Ps. 9: 7; 
and the union may be indicated by Vav (the sign of an after-clause); as 
in Ps. 18: 41, (comp. 2 Sam. 22: 41); Job 36: 26, "pm NDi M2 “BON, the 
number of his years—there is no reckoning, viz. to them (nin). Gen. 3:5. 

Peculiar, and like to the usage of the Latin, is the use of a participle 
prefixed to a sentence in this way; e. g. Prov. 23: 24, mawn) Don sbin, he 
who begetteth a wise man, he shall have joy; 1 Sam. 2: 13, 131 Wox7>D 
WM2n D2 ND Mat, every one who presented an offering, then came the 
servant of the priest. 1 Sam. 9: 11. 


§ 143. 
Relation of Subject and Predicate in respect to Gender and 
Number. 


According to the noun, which constitutes the subject of a 
sentence, the predicate (verb, adjective, noun with copula) nor- 
mally directs itself as to gender and number. From this rule, 
however, although common to all languages, many departures 
occur; which are grounded upon the principle of a constructio ad 
sensum, without regarding the mere grammatical form; and al- 
so upon the position of the predicate, when it is made to precede. 
In respect to the first, it should be noted, 

1. That nouns singular, which comprise in themselves a 
collective idea, like =¥, "i: people, n72 family, or like tx man, 
mankind (see § 106, 1), may naturally be associated with the 
plural. 

E, g. Judg. 9: 52, Serie tox at, the men (man) of Israel saw; Judg. 
15: 10. 1 K. 20: 20, ox soy, and the Syrians fled, lit. Syria. If the 
collective noun is fem., and yet masc. individuals are denoted by it, the 








* Such a case absolute may be preceded by >; as in Ps. 16: 3. Is. 32: 1. 


§ 143. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 261 


case is the same, [constructio ad sensum]; as 2 Sam. 15: 23, D523 yINN->D, 
the whole land (its inhabitants) wept.* 1 K. 10: 24. Gen. 48: 6. 1 Sam. 2: 
33. 17: 46. Vice versd, we find a noun sing. masculine with a predicate _ 
plural feminine ; e. g. Job 1: 14, nin APB, the kine were plough- 
ing. Examples where the predicate remains in the singular, in such 
cases, are Gen. 35: 11. Is. 2: 4, comp. Mic. 4: 3. 


Often the construction begins with the singular, (specially 
when the verb precedes, § 144, 1), and then, after the subject in 
the sing. is named, the construction goes on with the p/ural. 

E, g. Ex, 33: 4, axnt... osm sew, and the people heard... and 
mourned. Ex. 1: 20. 

2. On the other hand, plural nouns, which have a singular 
meaning (§ 106, 2), may, and often do, take a verb, etc., in the 
singular ; (constructio ad sensum). Specially is this the case 
with the so-called pluralis excellentiae. 

E, g. Gen. 1: 1, 3, where DTeRt is joined with a verb sing.; [and so 
in cases almost without number. So of other like plurals]; as Ex. 21: 29, 
mans 223, his master shall be put to death. 


In like manner a fem. form with a masc. meaning, takes a 
masc. predicate; e. g. D2m m2qp O54, the preacher was wise. 

3. The plural nanies of beasts and of things (not that of per- 
sons), be they fem. or masc., more usually take the fem. sing. for 
the predicate. 








* Comp. Sallust, Jug. 14: pars in crucem acti, pars bestiis objecti sunt. 

+ It is only in the older books of Scripture, that we find the plur. form p*r}x 
joined with a plural predicate. Perhaps the idiom originated in the time of poly- 
theism. [? To me it seems more natural to say, that D°7 Fes is a pluralis intensiv US, 
(the older Greek poets, e. ee et are full of such an idiom) ; that the probable 
root is the same as the Arabie abs, erpavit; and thence mts Allah, = nomen tremen- 
dum, and so in Hebrew, =>7'ts the supreme object of veneration or fear; which the He- 
brews, believing that object to be ONE, used with a singular verb, etc.; see Eichh. 
Simonis’ Lex. on mids .—S.] The plural predicate may be found in Gen. 20: 13. 
35: 7. Ex. 22: 8. Ps. 58:12. Later writers avoid this construction, out of fear that 
some appearance of polytheistic views may seem to be indicated. [There was ground 
enough for such a fear, in the religious history of the Hebrews.] Comp. Ex. 32: 4, 
8, and Neh. 9:18; also 2 Sam. 7: 23, and 1 Chron.17:21. See Ges. Lex. in verbum. 


t In Greek there is altogether the like idiom; e. g. ra tpéBara Baiver; and in such 
cases Attic usage demands the singular, except when rational beings are the subject, 
[when the plural is employed]; e. g. Ta dvdparoda &7.aBov, the slaves took. In Ara- 
bic, such a plural, (called technically pluralis inhumanus,i. e. not pertaining to human 
beings), is predominantly joined with a predicate sing. fem.; as are all the so-called 
Pluralia fracta, which are collective forms. 


262 § 144. posITION OF THE PREDICATE. 


Comp. the fem. form with collective meaning, § 105, 3. d.  E. g. Joel 1: 
20, Asm nina, the beasts languish; Job 14:19, m*n7BDy Hon, the floods 
thereof phethlinn Jer. 49: 24, HmINN DTI, severe pains lay hold upon 
her; Ps. 37: 31. Job 12:7. In the like manner, [i. e. by using sing. for 
plural], are the pronouns disposed of; Job 39: 15, Is. 35: 7, 2 K. 3: 3. 

4., Even when the plural relates to persons, it may take a 
sing. predicate, in case not the whole or collective body is to be 
designated, but each individual. ; 

Comp. >> = omnes and omnis. . Prov. 3: 18, "wRa 22h, eerie one 
who takes hold of her ts blessed. Prov. 27: 16, nan By MIEN, every one 
who treasures up her, treasures up the wind, (verb. sing.) Prov. 28: 1. 
Gen. 27: 29. Ex. 31: 14. 

5. Nouns in the dual take a plural predicate; for verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and pronouns, have no dual. 

E. g. Gen. 29: 17, nida Nb 21, and the eyes of Leah were weak; 
Is. 30: 20. 2 Sam. 24: 3. 1 Sam. 1: 13, mis2 Hyp, her Lips moved. 
2 Chron. 7: 15. 6: 40, Mic. 7: 10. Jer. 14: 7. Is. 1: 16, aot 10: 8. 20: 10. 27: 
4. Ps. 38:11. The distinction noted above in No. 3 of this §, is seldom ex- 
tended to the Dual. Mic. 4: 11. 


§ 144. 
Position of the Predicate. 


I. Very often is there a departure from normal concord, 
when the predicate stands first. ‘The subject to be named, in 
such a case, not being so fully and definitely in the mind of the 
speaker, as when he names it at the beginning of a clause or 
sentence, the most predominant and ready form of the verb is 
chosen, and of course the masc. singular, even when the sub- 
ject may be feminine or plural. ‘The predicate remains, [like a 
kind of impersonal verb], fixed and without declension. This 
will be seen in respect to all the variety of predicates; e. g. 

(a) The verb; e. g. Is. 47: 1, W95 7729 NB, quasi there comes upon thee 
evil (fem.); Mic. 2: 6, mia2D 309 N>, there departs not shame (fem. plur.). 
Ps. 57: 2. Deut. 32: 35. Esth. 9: 23, putin bap, the Jews took; 2 K. 3: 
26, Manan pin, it grew strong the battle. And oftentimes there is no 
difficulty in treating the verb which precedes as a verb impersonal, (like il 
vient des hommes, il a paru deux volumes, § 142, 1. a). 

Seldom is the plur. masc. of the verb joined with the plur. fem. of the 
noun ; e. g. as in Judg. 21: 21, m>-uj miaa segs ON, when the daughters of 
Shiloh go out. 


§ 144. posrTION OF THE PREDICATE. 263 


(b) The adjective; e. g. Ps. 119: 187, F7uBwa “Wr, right are thy sta- 
tutes. [This is like our English idiom, where an adjective is not inflected]. 
Ps. 119; 155, now... pina, far off... is safety. 

(c) The participle as a noun; e. g. Gen. 47: 3, F7T32 INE O35, lit. 
keeper of sheep [are] thy servants. 

(d) The copula that connects with a noun which is a predicate, when it 
stands before its subject, may follow the same rule; e. g. Is, 18: 5, when a 
maturing grape becomes the flower, 31 7797; Gen. 27: 39, 31: 8.* [Ob- 
scurely expressed, and the proof doubtful. ] 


It should be carefully noted, that the apparent irregularity in 
question extends itself not beyond the first predicate ; for other 
predicates afterwards subjoined in the same connection, con- 
form to their subjects in gender and number. 

E. g. Ezek. 14: 1, savis1 Dey "8 NB, and there came to me men, 
and they sat, ete. ; Gen, 1: 14. Num. 9: 6. 

Norte 1. In general, the language is somewhat sparing as to the use of 
fem. forms, (comp. § 110, 1, n. 2), and has contented itself with putting the 
nearest predicate to the fem. in concord with it. Instructive are the ex- 
amples in Is. 33: 9, yo M2>ax bax, it mourns, the country withers up ; 
Is, 14: 9, DARE 72 WD. it nom. Sku, the under-world is in commo- 
tion... it stirreth up the Shades on Poe, of thee. On the like ground, 
nouns nae near predicate is fem., take, at a remoter distance, a masc. 
predicate ; e. g. Gen. 32: "9. 49:15, Lev. 2:1. 5:1. 20:6. The like takes 
place in dependent clauses; as in Job 6:10. 20:26. So after ">, Job 6: 20. 

The like is true of the plural, to which pronouns sing. refer, when they 
stand more remotely; Job 38: 32. Deut. 21: 10. 

Nove 2. The cases in which the nearer predicate does not appear to 
conform in number and gender to the subject, are partly such as that the 
verb must be regarded as a passive impersonal, and be construed with an 
Ace. (§ 140, 1, n.); or else the predicate is a participle which is to be re- 
garded as virtually a noun; e. g. Gen. 4:7, ya mNon mne>, at the door 
[is] sin a Ler-in-wait ; Bee! 27,92 maa mio a, TF had Fiweh where 
“> nt = Thad; Gen. 15: 17, ot nabs 1, and ae was it, i. e, dark, 
the verb standing impersonally. 


§ 145, 
Construction of compound Subjects. 


1, When the subject consists of a Nom. and Gen., the predi- 
cate sometimes follows the Gen., as to gender and number, 


* When sim supplies the place of a copula, it remains unchanged, even when 
placed between plurals and feminines; e. g. The offerings of Jehovah irdnz sin, 
this is his heritage. Comp. Jer. 10: 3. 


264 § 146. use oF THE PARTICLES. 


rather than the Nom. or const. noun; i. e. in cases where the 
leading idea is attached to the Gen. noun. 

E. g. Job 32:7, Maan assis pd 34, the multitude of years teach (pl.) 
wisdom; Gen. 4:10. 2 Sam. 10:9, Marda "2p Hh the front of the battle 
was, etc. Is. 6: 4. Job 38: 21. 

Almost throughout is such a construction found after >> and the nume- 
rals ; e.g. DIN WT>2 wT, and all the days of Adam were ; Gen. 5: 5. 
Ex. 15: 20. Gen. 8: 10. 

: 2. When several subjects are connected by and (1), the 
predicate stands mostly in the plural; especially when it follows 
the nouns. 

E. g. Gen. 18: 11, op} Hw} oATAN, Abraham and Sarah [were] old. 
But when the predicate stands first, it often directs itself after the gender 
and number of the nearest noun or subject; e.g. Gen. 7:7, 10235 1) N35, 
and there entered Noah and his sons; Ex. 15:1. Num, 12:1, 52a "293 
yim}, and Miriam spake and Aaron. Seldom is the masc. preferred 
when it stands first; as Prov. 27:9, 23 mat myyph paw), ointment and 
perfume rejoice the heart. If the construction advances beyond one predi- 
cate, the plural is chosen in such cases; e.g. Gen. 21: 32. 24: 61. 31: 14. 
33: 7. 


CHAPTER V. 
USE OF THE PARTICLES. 


§ 146. 
General Remarks. 


So far as the doctrine of the Particles constitutes a part of the 
doctrine of forms, (§ 97—103), it concerned us etymologically 
to comprise within our view the relation of this part of speech 
to the others. Here we have to do with the meaning and use of 
particles, which are words of high importance to an acute dis- 
cernment of the sense, and to a philosophical treatment of lan- 
cuage. ‘Their most important properties should be here brought 
to view; although we must leave to the Lexicon the more com- 
plete exhibition of them, and, for the most part, the citation of 
passages for illustration and confirmation. 


~ 


§147. apverRBs. 265 


§ 147. 
Of Adverbs. 


The most important adverbs may be arranged according to 
their meaning, as follows: 


1, Apverss oF piace. 0 there, at that place; tb, here, (prob. for 
ine = sna in this [place]); mt and mia, here; odin anid min hither, — 
(the last also means here, comp. the Chald. 3 this ;) nadi, thither, fur- 
ther on, (prop. to a distance); hence m2) 7272, (from Sabed hither), this 

side of thee ; also HN2A} F7, (from thee farther on), that side from thee, 
1 Sam. 20: 22, 37. Is. 18: 2. by, more usually da above; mnma be- 
neath, under ; 123% to the upper part; m2 to the part beneath; yan 
without ; yim out of, outside; nz and 172938, in, within; DIP, DIP, 
before, eastward ; “AMIN behind; mytny Re ene 442 over ie 
yan to or ontheright ; 02 westward, (lit. from the [Mediter ranean | sea) 
sap and a"302 round about, nivazip right up, erect. 

Many particles designate the direction whence, by the preposition a ; 
and the direction whither, by the Acc. [locative] ending (n—). E. g. nw 
means there, Dv from there, thence; 2% thither; yn without, mx5n 
(to the without) abroad. Several adverbs appear only with = appended ; 
such as nw72, ONDA. 

In the mean time, bothtof these appendages to adverbs designate also a 
state of resting in any place; e.g. M20 designates not merely thither, 
but therein ; }"7272 signifies not merely on the right, but at or in the right. 
The 4= in both its shades of meaning (§ 88, 2), is a proper Acc. ending ; 
and 42 appropriately designates a dependence on anything; and hence the 
condition of a thing on the side of another ; (like a dextra, a sinistra, 
a latere, a tergo, and in French, dessous, dessus, dedans, dehors, i. e. 
below, above, within, without). Thus Cant. 4: 1, 52> “ha >a, lit. they 
lie down on the depending of the mount of Gilead, i.e. on the side of. 
(Comp. Soph. Antig. 411, zodijue® axowy é mayor. Odyss. xxi. 420, éx 
Sipgoro xaFijusvos) . 

2. ApverBS oF TIME. In part these are the same as those of space, and 
are carried over, from analogy, to the designation of time. E. g. pw then, 
like éxst; M3 now, at present, (and even beyond simple time-reckoning, 
like vvv, vUv), also soon, speedily ; Di" to-day; DID, DINTD, presently, 
now; diam, dione, yesterday; Wax yesterday evening, last night ; 
piv (out of whys and 2%), day before yesterday ; “12 in the morning ; 
moma, on the morrow, on the following day ; path by y day; med by 
night; “Pp2 in the morning, also oBwm in the morning or early ; 
nitm>> all the day ; then always, evermore ; 32m continually, always ; 
pdiz, obiz>, eternally, mx2, n32>, perpetually ; 1% then, (in respect to 

34 


266 § 147. apvEeRBs. 


the past and the future); 182 aforetime; D°2D>, the same; “32 long 
ago, a long time ; ‘i> (repeating), again, continually, still, (with a ne- 
gation, no more); IMD (as one) together; “103 the same; 4270N4 at 
Jirst ; 2 -2mx (after it was so), afterwards, after that; mWVa hasti- 
ly ; DxmE suddenly, in the twinkling of an eye. 

(3) ApvERBS FOR OTHER mopauitiEs. (a) Condition; e. g. > thus, 
so; 4D the same; S82 very; “m3 preeminently, specially; =m" more, 
very much ; 22 and m2, altogether, entirely ; 9282, 0222 (as nothing, 
little), almost, very near; SDN so, consequently, Job 9: 24; hence fre- 
quently in animated questions, (§ 150, 2. n.); iv and s9w, well; >> 
(connected with other adverbs), altogether, even, as ‘1i3->2, altogether 
so long, quite so long, Job 27: 3. 

(6) Quantity ; as nan much; ah> abundantly ; nm (riches) richly, 
amply ; 3 (with a Gen. after it) sufficiently, as 571 what is enough for 
thee; m2 much, enough; 72>, 3722, only {in separation); the first of 
these takes suffixes as "72> DT only; ‘11> together. 

(c) Assurance, certainty; 28, OY28, truly, verily; 528 certainly, 
indeed, yea; and so its abridged form, 83 28, yea, also much more, 
full surely, Gen. 17: 19. 1 K. 1: 43; "3x perhaps. This last is probably 
derived from is and "> = 85; comp. the Aram. N23"3, whether not, 
perhaps, wjmots. Once "bax = "b>, if not, Num. 22: 23; then whether 
not ; thence perhaps. It expresses doubt, solicitude, hope. | 

(d) Limitation ; for the expression of assurance can easily go over into 
its opposite, (comp. verum, vero); and therefore these assurance-particles 
designate in part these Limitation-modalities ; as 5% only ; j2%,>28, but ; 
bothi n the later Hebrew more particularly. As marking strong contrast 
mbtx is used, = on the other hand, on the contrary, (Sept. ov py adda), 
limited almost entirely to the Pent. and Job. For limitation, besides 38 
we have Pp = only, save. 

(e) Of ground, reason; 427>2, j2>, 72, therefore. (f) Of addi- 
tion ; D3 moreover and even; and also the more poetic and climactic 5x, 
much more, even entirely ; which, however, often go over into the domain 
of conjunctions. 

(4) For adverbs of negation, see § 149. 

(5) Of inquiry ; which comprises all the foregoing classes. Besides the 
appropriate interrogative particles, (4, 58, § 150), the question respecting, 
(a) Place, is asked by "%, S38. The first takes a suffiz; as 8, where 
is he? etc. So tS, AYN, FEN, HN, where? HPI", jN2, whence? 
mo& (from AMX), whither? (b) Time; by "2 when? ry. 33 until 
when? how long? 2852 the same. (c) Of condition ; A238, 7X, N28, 
how? (d) Of number; 22 how many? how often? (e) Of cause or 
reason; i482 and P5772 (§ 97, 3), wherefore. 


§ 149. coNSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 267 


- 


Most of these interrogative particles are formed by the union with them 
of "&, "8%, which of itself means where ; then it becomes merely the sign of 
a question, (whereof, whereto ?) before particles of place, time, or condition. 
Tn this manner, and by the use of the ending (M_), of 72 prefixed, and of 
the relative "8x, arises a whole series of correlate adyerbs, such as Mt 
here, my from here ; Hy "% where, Mv2 "~ whither? Mya WX whence 
(rel.); ow there; 2 thither; ovina from there; ov “Wx, where; 
mats wx, whither; cvi “ix, whence. 


§ 148. 
Construction of Adverbs. 


1, Adverbs serve not merely for the purpose in general of 
definiteness or of making limitations and qualifications in a sen- 
tence, but also for the limitations of adjectives; e. g. 482 350 
very & eood. Moreover they connect with nouns, (like the Greek 
i 798s juéea); and then they stand: 

(a) In apposition ; as by D4, innocent blood, 1 Sam. 25:31; B22 ON, 
few men, Neh. 2: 12; 383 natn maaan , very much sagacity, 1K. 5: 9. 
(6) In the Genitive; as pn sa, sch blood, 1 K. 2: 31, where the 
adverb is treated as a noun. 

Like nouns of quality also do adverbs appear, in the later writers, when 
they have a preposition prefixed ; as 23 (in the so), so, in such a way = 
i2, Esth. 4: 16; D2m 5x in vain, for nothing, Ezek. 6: 10. 

2. The repetition of an adverb sometimes strengthens the 
expression, and sometimes denotes continual accession. 

E, g. 82 482 exceedingly much, Num. 14:7 ; also more and more, Gen. 
7:19; mwa nwa, deeper and deeper, Deut. 28:43; wea va, little and 
little, Ex. 23: 30. 

How an adverbial idea is conveyed by verbs, see § 139. n. 1. 


§ 149. 
Particles of Negation. 

1. The most important adverbs of Negation must be here 
considered. 

These are X> = ovz, not; dX = py, that not; jx = 5 Nd, there is 
not; 07% yet not; OBX no more. Almost exclusively poetic, are ba, 
“ba, not. Negative conjunctions are >X, 42, "23>, that not. 

Particulars follow: > (like ov, ov) stands principally for an objective, 
unconditional negation ; hence with the Imperf. for prohibition, (§ 125, 3. c.). 
In connection with 55, and when without an article after it, (in which case 


268 §149. PARTICLES OF NEGATION. 


>5 of itself means any one, every one), X> means nullus, no one, none, none 
at all; (comp. French ne... personne). Gen. 3:1, 455 yy 52 IRM ND, ye 
shall not eat of any tree in the garden, or ye shall cat of no tree, etc. 
Ex. 12: 16, nye Nb naxba->z, no work shall be done; Ex. 10: 15. 20: 4. 
2 Chron. 32: 15. Prov. 12: 21. 80:30. (The negation is here closely con- 
nected with the verb, and not happens anything is therefore = nothing 
happens. Even so $38 = 82 8); Ecc. 1:9, wan->> px, there is not any- 
thing new, i. e. nothing is new. Quite otherwise is it, in case >> is de- 
fined or limited; as Num. 23; 13, nN Mn ND ibD, the whole of him thou dost 
not sce, i.e. merely a part of him. On the use of this negative in interro- 
gations, see § 150, 1. 

The position of X> is directly before the verb. Seldom is there a varia- 
tion here; see § 142, 1. 

bx is properly = «7, or the Latin ne with the Imperf.; still the phrase 
Nar by, (ne veniat, let him not come), may be employed to signify: He 
must not come; see § 125, 3. c, also § 126, 2. 

Sometimes >X stands absolutely without any verb; and then it has the 
force of the uj (Opt.) in Greek, which is an abbreviated method of saying: 
py toute yévytou! In this case, N> = not so! surely not! uttered opta- 
tively. E. g. Ruth 1:13, mio Sy, surely not, my daughters! see § 150, 1. 
With respect to the interrogative use of bx, see § 150, 1. 

7X is the negation [or direct opposite] of Ww, and includes in itself the 
verb of existence in all its tenses. FE. g. Gen. 37: 29, Vina Ou" FR, Jo- 
seph was not in the pit ; Num. 14: 42, p2a4pa mins sx , Jehovah ts not in 
the midst of you. Formulas which in the affirmative have wn» (there is), 
in the negative have j*x (there is not); as Gen. 31: 29, "19 5x2 wh, it is in 
my power, (lit. it is in the power of my hand), while the negative puts }>8 
for >, as in Neh. 5:5, "1 xb jx, it is mot in my power. Hence it 
comes, (a) That when personal pronouns are the subject of the sentence, 
where these words are employed, they are connected with them as suffixes ; 
y7s and 65]; and so 5525%, D25N, etc. (b) When there is a predicate verb 
that follows, it is put, almost always, in the participle-form, because the 
verb to be is included in j>x and w>; e. g. Ex. 5: 16, jm2 8 jan, straw is 
not given; Ex. 5:10, jm “ax, LT will not give; Ex, 8: 17. Deut. 1: 32. 
(c) Inasmuch as * is employed to designate existence simply, (there is = 
there exists), so }"8, the exact opposite of 84, denies existence; e. g. 
np"& , he was no more, Gen. 5: 24. 

Abridged from }"8 comes the negative syllable "%, used in a kind of 
compound manner ; as Job 22: 30, *p2"&,, not innocent. (In Ethiopic, it 
is the most common negation-syllable, and is prefixed even to verbs). 
Respecting the rise of the interrogative "% out of 778, see § 150, 1, n. 


§ 150. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 269 


smbad is properly a const. state or form, with the ending *~, (§ 88, 3, a), 
and it is most frequently employed, when the Inf. with a preposition is to 
be negatively expressed ; e. g. positively >>> to cat, negatively d>¥ ~m>a> 
not to eat, Gen. 3: 11. Seldom is it employed with a finite verb for that 
not, as in Jer. 23: 14. 

2 properly means turning away, taking away, removing; and so it 
stands for that not, lest. It is used especially after the mention of some 
obstacle or hindrance, (Gen. 11: 4. 19: 15); or after verbs expressing fear, 
guarding against, and the like, (as ded rj, vereor ne); Gen. 31: 24, 31. 
Also at the beginning of a sentence, which expresses solicitude; as in 
Gen. 3: 22, tn mbws jp Hs, and now, that he may not put forth his 
hand. 

2. Two negations in the same sentence destroy not each 
other (as in Latin), but make the negation energic. 

So in Greek, ov% otdsis, ox oom; and thus 1 K. 10: 21, 8> 5D PX 
rranna> =um2, stlver was not at all regarded; in the parallel passage, 
2 Chron. 9: 20, Nd is omitted). Ex. 14: 11—Zeph. 2: 2, Ninn ND DQOR, 
while he shall not come; Is. 5: 9, 2259 j>~a,, without any inhabitant. 

2. When two sentences with a negation follow each other, 
the negative is frequently inserted only in the first, and is to be 
carried forward by the mind to the second. 

E. g. 1 Sam. 2: 3, nigas adm Azim by, ‘do not very haughtily speak 
much, let [not] a perverse thing come id of your mouth.’ Ps. 9: 19. Job 
3: 10, 28: 17. 30:20. (The same is the case with prepositions, § 151, 4). 


§ 150. 
Of interrogative words and sentences. 

I. The interrogative tone may be given by the reader, to a 
sentence which has no distinctive written sign of interrogation. 

E. g. 2 Sam. 18: 29, 223 nib, is it well with the lad? Gen. 27: 24, 
"we 22 Ay OMX, art thou that one, my son Esau? 

More frequent is this, when the interrogatory clause is united 
to a preceding one by a (1). 

E. g. Jonah 4: 11, D198 Nb NI, and I—should I not spare? Job 2. 
10. 10: 8, 9, 13. Judg. 11: 23, 14: 16. So after the particle D3, Zech. 8: 6; 
also after 5&8, Job 14: 3. 

Negative sentences may readily be turned into interrogative 
ones; and when they exhibit 8>, the answer to such interroga- 
tives is expected to be in the affirmative. 


270 § 150. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 


E. g. Job 14: 16, *nxun b2 “atin Nd, dost thou not watch over my 
iniquity? Jonah 4: 11. Lam. 3: 36, 37, 


When >8 (= ne) is employed, in such cases, a negative an- 
swer is expected. 

E, g. 1 Sam. 27: 10, piss eHow bx, have ye not made an irruption 
to-day.* 

Of the few interrogative particles that exist in Hebrew, some 
are of an affirmative and some of a negative nature. ‘The lat- 
ter have gradually attained to an interrogative power. (So in 
Greek, 7, ovx, uj; in Latin, an, ne). 

The interrogative 1 (§ 98, 4) has originally a demonstrative meaning, and 
is related to the article. 

Probably "x (where) sprung from a negation; in full, }2X,(bence }"x2 
whence?) properly not, there is not ; which interrogatively spoken, means: 
Is there not? = where is? So i*x is he not? — where is he? Job 14: 
10, man dieth, i>81,, andwhereis he? In Arabic, 58 is an interrogative pro- 
noun = 2 who? ji (Comp. German wo, and English who). But this is not 
its original meaning. In respect to shortening j*X8 into "X, see in § 149 un- 
der j28. 

2. In simple interrogations m interrogative usually stands ; 
in disjunctive ones, =83—7. 1 K. 22: 15, dam BS FI, shall we 
go, or shall we cease [from going?] The same sequency is 
fodode in indirect questions, only that =& is more frequent in the 
simple question, and in the first place. 


ParticuLars Frottow. The 4 stands immediately before the pure and 
simple question, in regard to which one is uncertain as to the answer. Job 
2: 8, ma> maw, hast thou observed my servant Job? Often the inquirer ex- 
pects a negative answer (num/?), which may lie in the tone. Gen. 4: 9, 
“Dax omy Taito, am I my brother’s keeper? Job 14: 14, ‘when man dies, 
mt shall he revive again?’ Such questions may comprise the sense 
of a direct negation; 2 Sam, 7: 5, nv "> man Hmxn, shalt thou build for 
me ahouse? (In the parallel passage, 1 Chron. 17: 4, a direct negative, X> 
Sai om, thou shalt not build, etc.). On the other hand, if 4 is joined 
with a negation, it may have the power of an affirmation ; as Non, is it not 
so? and this is often used for 25 lo! as in 2 K. 15: 21. 20: 20, comp. 
2 Chron. 27: 7. 32: 32.+ 








* So in Greek; ov in questions where the answer is expected to be affirmative, Il. 
X. 165. IV. 242; 7 where it is expected to be negative, as in Odyss. VI. 200. 

+ So mn what? is also employed. Spoken indignantly, or in the way of reproof, 
it stands for prohibition ; e. g. Cant. 8:4. Job 16:6. 31:1. In Arabic, it is frequently 
a negation. 


§ 150. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES, 271 


On the other hand, the question may be so spoken that one expects as- 
sent or agreement, | in cases where we put not into the question; (as the 
Greek can employ 7 yég, or 4 yag ov in the like sense, and the Latin ne 
for nonne. (Heindorf ad Plat. Phaedr. 266 D. Heusing ad Off. III. 17). 
Job 20: 4, A277 MND, dost thou not know this? Before this simple ques- 
tion, DN rarely stands ; and when it does, it is in the relation of disjunction 
from something which precedes; German, oder etwa; Latin, an. Is. 29:16. 
Job 6: 12. 

In the disjunctive question, (wfrum— an?), the predominant forms are 
DX — 19; also B8)—, Job 21:4. With emphasis on the first question, is 
BN) So ERNT, Job 34: 17. 40: 8,9. Before the second question, also, is some- 
times put 1X or, Job 16: 3. Eec. 2:19. Further, the connection 58—A 
requires no contrast, but often stands in poetic parallelism, and elsewhere 
(Gen. 37: 8. Hab. 3: 8), where the same question is repeated merely with 
other words, and the difference of the second question lies not in the thing, 
but in the form of the words. Thus Job 4: 17, Is man just before God, 
(D8) is a@ man pure before his Maker? Job 6: 5, 6. 8: 3. 10: 4, 5. 11: 
2,7. 22:3. In continuing a question With another form, in a second otiyos, 
is not unusual, [which of course virtually transfers the interrogative par- 
ticle of the first otiyog to that of the second]; as in Job 10:3. 13:7. 15:7, 8. 
22: 4. Seldom is the 7 repeated in the second question ; as in Judg. 14: 15, 
(where, however, actual contrast or opposition is designated); but where 
there is in reality a double question, it may stand before both, 1 Sam, 23: 11. 
About as rare is D8, before two questions in succession, as in Job 6: 12. 

The indirect question is generally subject to the same rules. In a sim- 
ple question, 5 interrog. is employed after verbs of questioning, of doubt, 
of overseeing, when it — whether. E. g. Gen. 8:8. Ex. 36: 4. Some- 
times D8 is used; Cant. 7:13. 2 K. 1:2. In disjunctive cases, we find 
Dx —n, [we say: Is tt so... or so?] Gen. 27:31; but also 5—4, Num. 
13: 18. The formula 58 vain, who knoweth whether? has an aftirma- 
tive sense — I know that, Esth. 4: 14. 

In regard to adverbs, which are used in questions about time, place, and 
condition, see § 147, 5 

For the sake of animating questions, Mt is introduced, § 120, 2. Also 
NIBN, now, then, [= do in questions]; as NIEX F572, what ails thee 
now? Is. 22:1. Job 17: 45, SIDR AN, where now ? 


3. The affirmative answer, as in Latin, is given by virtually 
repeating the predicate of the question; e. g. Gen. 27: 24. 29:6. 
Judg. 18:11. The negative answer is made by &>, Gen. 19: 2. 


Bik § 151. pREPosITIONS. 


§ 151. 
Of Prepositions. 

1. The simple* prepositions designate, like adverbs, for the 
most part and originally, space-relations ; then, those of time, 
ground, cause, occasion, and other intellectual relations. Prepo- 
sitions of place designate either a quiet resting in it, or a mov- 
ing from or to a place. Of the first class, some are employed 
after verbs of motion; but of the last class, seldom are any em- 
ployed to designate resting in a place. 

Prerosrtions or Prace. (a) For a state of rest ; 3 in, on; >3 on, up- 
on; Mam under ; “MX, 7N behind; 25> before, over against ; bu, ms 
with, by, near ; 322, 323, (properly at a distance from... ), specially 
behind, around, (aug); 22 between ; “ax over, beyond. 

(6) For motion; ya from, out from [anything]; >x, > to, towards ; “2 
unto, even to; and besides these, also 3 in the sense of on to, by upon, on 
to. - 

(c) Many of the aoe. already named, are at the same time em- 
ployed in relation to time; e. g. 3 in, within, 72, >8, 32. 

(d) For other relations one Boat notice 3 as, (", "DD, according to 
the proportion or measure); D9 with, together He mbar, "T3232 except, 
besides ; "mba without, except ; i272, 5222 on account of; ap » (for a re- 
ward), for, because of. 

2. Great dexterity and much acuteness does the Heb. lan- 
guage develope, in the compounding of prepositions. Particu- 
larly does it set prepositions of motion before other local prepo- 
sitions, in order to designate local relations, which have either 
existed, do now exist, or will take place. (So in French: de 
chez, @auprés).— Thus, 

(a) With a; as “mya from behind; 5-22 from between; >32 from 
above; o22 from with; mx id.; nam. from under. 

(b) More seldom with 58; "28 >8 to the hinder part ; > yxr2 outside 
of; > yirva >s to the Hisar of, Num. 5: 8. 





* We reckon to this class such words as "255, 9322, which, although properly 
composite as to their elements, yet convey but one definite idea. This stands contrast- 
ed with sueh words as "285% Srom before—a composite idea. 

+ When the Hebrew says: ‘ He took the offering nate $2, from above the altar 
(lit. from the upper surface of the altar), he exhausts the idea to be communicated ; 
while the French with its @ prend le chapeau sur la table, and the German with its er 
nimmt den Hut vom Tische weg, do but half express it, each in its own way. [The 
English is often nearer the Hebrew; e. g. he took the cover OFF FROM the dish]. 


§ 151. preposirions. 273 


. 


Further; compound prepositions which have gone over by usage into 
adverbs, become prepositions again, by putting aj more rarely }2, after 
them. 

E. g. 5372 upper side, > >3°2 from the upper side of = over ; mmry2 un- 
der side, P mam from the under side of = beneath, under; so 3 yrrva 
Srom the outside of = abroad, without ; 12> separately, 7 42> separately 
Srom = without. 

These connecting prepositions may also stand before; e. g. 7 43° = 
Saba, besides; ~12>22, without, except; (Syr. 2 32>2).* Sometimes 
the connecting preposition is omitted; e. g. mmm, for > mana, Job 26: 5. 


3. Let us now go through with some of the most frequent, 
and at the same time most variously significant, prepositions, 
pointing out their meaning so as to aid the right understanding 
of their connection with verbs, and with some of the most im- 
portant idioms. 


(a) Beth (3) has the greatest variety of meaning, among the prepositions. 
It means, (1) Properly, condition as being in a place, (év); thence in time, 
then in these or those circumstances; e. g. IND, MUNI, pibvia. In re- 
lation to a multitude, it means among; as B5D among the nations. In 
relation to enclosed boundaries, within; as O°"2G2 within the gates. In 
relation to elevated objects, on; as n505D2 on horses, Is. 66: 20. More 
seldom it may have any,of these significations after verbs of motion = sic, 
(like ponere in loco). It should be remarked, that the Hebrew says: (a) 
To drink 1x a cup, (for what is therein); Gen. 44:5, (So in Arab., and 
also Chaldee. Dan. 3: 2. So in Xenophon Anab. VI. 1. 4, év motyjoim — év 

zovom mive, and so Ezra 3: 6. With Florus, in ossibus bibere; French, 
boire dans une tasse). (8) IN the manner, 1n the rule, for after the man- 
ner, according to Ht rule, (comp. év td voum, hune in modum). Thus 
nin sata, according to the word of the Lord; mint msv2, according 
to the sobnel of Jehovah; Gen. 1:26, after our image, after our likeness, 
nmvatD sada; Gen. 1: 27. 5: 1, 3, ‘Adam begat a son inv, in or af 
ter his own likeness.’ Somewhat different in Gen. 21: 12, i Tsaac 
(pms 2), after Isaac shall thy seed be named.’ Special attention is due, 
(vy) To the passages, where the grammarians assume a so-called 3 essentiae, 
which we must translate by as, and the Latin by tanquam; e. g. Ex. 6: 3, 
‘I appeared to Abraham, "73 5x2, as almighty God.’ Is. 40:10. Most 
striking is this idiom, when 3 is put before a predicate-adjective after the 
verb to be, (for then it means, to carry one’s self as being what the predi- 





* In Syriac, pa b»>, the upper part of, is a preposition; $y> ya, above, is an ad- 
verb, (Hoffm. Gramm. Syr. p. 280 bott.). In Hebrew, 77> from at, = Lat. usque a, 
usque ex, comp. also inde. 


35 


274 § 151. preposiTions. 


cate expresses). E. g. Ecc. 7: 14, 230 nn = be joyful, (lit. be in joy); 
Ex. 32: 22, ‘Thou knowest this people, 815 9a "2, that it is base,’ (lit 
in baseness); Job 23: 13, ‘he is 382 an only one,’ (lit. in oneness). In 
Arabic this idiom is very frequent; (see Ges. Thes. p. 174). 

(2) Beth (3) designates location at a place =n it. E. g. “22 = & 
motouc, at or by the river, Ezek. 10: 15; "7723 in the eyes, = before or 
in the view, (év opFoduois, Il. I. 587). Frequently does it designate motion 
[or extension], and then means simply fo, (not in. the sense of > towards 
without marking arrival, nor of 59 unto marking arrival), but that of touch- 
ing, grazing upon, reaching to, and the like; e. g. Gen. 11: 4, ‘a tower 
pvawa iW, whose top is in the heavens,’ i. e. reaches to. 

After verbs of motion, and such as are analogous to them, 2 stands be- 
fore the object of them, (where in Latin ad or in would be employed); e. g. 
a tnx, to take hold on; 3 3:3, to touch upon; 3 >, to inquire about ; 
asp, to call upon; 2 rN, * look upon or at ; 3 pat, to listen to. 
In respect to the last ver bs, 3 hen implies the adsignifieatioh of sympathy, 
of pleasure or pain, with which one sees and hears; as in Gen. 21: 16, ‘I 
could not look upon (2 AN) the death of the child” The metaphysical sense, 
which springs from the use of 3 as exhibited above, is that of in respect or 
reference to, concerning (Germ, iiber); as 2 raw, to exult over, to have plea- 
sure in respect to anything. 

To the idea of proximity very naturally attaches itself that of with, in re- 
spect to association, aid, instrument; e. g. Gen. 32: 11, ‘with or by my staff 
(">p23) I passed over the Jordan; Ps. 18: 30, ‘with thee (73) Tran upon a 
host,’ i. e. by thine aid. It should be noted, also, that verbs of coming and 
going with 2 after them, denote a bringing, a coming with something; e. g. 
Judg. 15: 1, ‘Samson visited his wife with a kid, ("733), i. e. he brought a 
kid, ete. Deut, 23: 5. 

(b) d3. This means upon (tmég), on (éné); often transferred to motion 
toward anything, over it, and stands [in this respect] nearly related to 3. 
With the meaning on, upon, it stands with verbs designating what is one- 
rous, burdensome, (prop. to lie hard upon); e. g. Is. ‘they are a burden ("b3) 
upon me ;’ Job 7:20. So in verbs signifying to lay upon, commit to (>2 72) ; 
also to spare, pity, as D9 DIN. 

To these meanings must be added that of towards, according: to, agreeably 
to, (a tropical sense, taken from the exemplar or type whereon one lays any- 
thing in order to fashion it), Also it has the meaning for the sake of, on ac- 
count of; (comp. Lat. ob, and Germ, darob); and even that of although, [see 
Ges. Lex. 53. B.] With the meaning over, it stands frequently associated 
with verbs of covering and protection, as > MOD, >¥ 423, to cover over, to 
make a protection over. The like, also, in ideas that stand related to this; 
e. g. DY BMD, to fight for one, (prop. to protect around him), Judg. 9: 17. 


§ 151. prepositions. 275 


It also denotes on, by, principally when one object rises up over another; as 
nen b> by the sea ; but sometimes also like on the side. Conceived of in re- 
spect to motion, it means towards, off to, anything; so that, in the later He- 
brew, and in poetry, it often == dx and >. See Job 6: 27. 19:5. 22:2. 
33: 23. 

(c) 2—marks motion or removal from anything. The fundamental mean- 
ing is that of separation from a whole, of origin, derivation. As a const. state 
of a noun, 7/2 indicates part or part of anything. Hence the meaning out of 
anything, first used to designate a part of, or that which is taken from the 
whole ; as in our expression, to give of, to take of, the of =a part of. This 
ground-meaning is plainest of all, when the word has the sense of some of, 
some of the blood (French du sang). The same is true of the mistaken 
idiom of the Hebrews and Arabians, where, with the words one, none, it 
stands apparently pleonastic; viz. mmx’ in Lev. 4: 2 = not from one, and 
stands for not any one, not the least part of, for it properly means a part, a 
prece, the least part, of anything. Comp. this seemingly difficult phraseology, 
in Lev. 4: 2. Deut. 15: 7. Ezek. 18: 10. 

In its most usual sense of from, away from, it forms the counter-part to 
>8 and 73, and stands not only after verbs of departing, fleeing away, from 
anything, but also for kindred ideas, such as being afraid of, concealing from, 
guarding one’s self from, etc., (where we supply either of or from; the Ger- 
mans use vor; the Greeks ano, the Latins ab, as xeAvntw aso, custodire ab). 

In transferring the particle to time, it means part of time from a period of 
beginning, not from the end of it, (like a0 yuxtds, de nocte, from the com- 
mencement of the night); e. g. 777272, from the beginning of thy days, Job 38: 
12,—It also means immediately after or from, (like é§ agiotov, ex itinere); e. g. 
Ps. 73: 20, y-piva, immediately from or after waking; Gen. 38: 24, wou 
pwn, after three months, i. e. from that period. Hos. 6: 2. 

On the use of this preposition to designate rest on the side of anything, 
where only a proximate removal from an object is marked, (like prope ab- 
esse ab, pendere ex aliqua re), see above, § 147, 1. In respect to the use 
of 72 for comparison, see § 117, 1. 

(d) 28, "bX, (prop. regions, directions, hence towards), marks motion 
or direction towards anything, both ina physical and intellectual sense, 
whether one reaches the mark or not. In the former case = 43; e. g. 
ane bx, to his very mouth; sometimes it means even penetration into a 
thing = Fin->x, e. g. Hamm > Nia go into the ark. 

Seldom, and only catachrestically, (yet in cases that admit of no doubt), 
is it employed to designate resting in a place; e. g. Jer. 41: 12, ‘they 
found him p23 Dva >x, at the many streams of Gibeon? Dip >x, in 
or at the place, Deut. 16:6. 1K. 8: 30, "im >; 1 Sam. 17: 3. (Comp. the 


276 § 151. pREposITIoNs. 


Greek eig and é for éy, e. g. é& Sopove pévery, Soph. Ajax. 80). [We 
say: at home, at Letpsic, etc.; but] the German zu Hause, zu Leipzig, 
etc. 

(e) Lamedh (>). This is abridged from >x, but is employed more in 
metaphorical senses ; e. g. fo anything, and hence a sign of the Dative, and — 
also for the Gen. of possession, § 113, 2. Then come in respect to, on ac- 
count of, for the good of, any one. Such a Dativus commodi, specially 
in later Hebrew and in conversation style, is pleonastically added to many 
verbs, particularly to the Imper. mode; ‘e.g. 42 92, go, up with thyself! 
42 M12 fly (to save thyself); but also as Cant. 2:17, 42 M25 be like. To 
the solecisms of later times, (as ofien in Syriac), belongs the placing of > 
before the Accusative ; e. g. > before the Acc. in Lam. 4: 5. [al. see Ges. 
Lex. 5, 4.c. Quaere, is not this borrowed from the Inf. complement of a 
verb svitl > prefixed? See § 139, 2.] 

Quite frequent, specially in poetry, is > put before a place of rest or abode, 
and also before time ; e. g. 52"2">, at thy right hand ; 372, at evening. 
Respecting its use with the Passive, and passive ideas, see § 140, 2. 

(f) kKaph (which, as an adverb, means about, somewhat), as a prepo- 
sition means as, and marks resemblance. When doubled, 2—3, it means 
as—so, and also so—as, e.g. Gen, 44:18. In later writers, 352 means 
according to—agreeably to or like as, used in respect to the conformity 
of a thing to rule. 

In designations of time, it means about. A pleonastic >, or Kaph vert- 
tatis (as grammarians speak), is nowhere to be found with certainty. Evy- 
erywhere the comparative meaning finds place. ‘The word 27> is in- 
deed equivalent to 2372, but properly it means, ike a very small thing. 
So in Neh. 7: 2, ‘he was ma8 UND as a true man (must be).’ 

4, If in poetic parallelism a preposition stands in the first 
member, it can, (like a negation, § 149, 3), be omitted in the 
second corresponding member. 


E. g. 3 in Is. 48: 14, ‘he will accomplish his pleasure on Babylon (>333) , 
and his power [on] the Chaldees’ (S"3> without 2). Hab. 3:15. Job 12: 
12, So too in respect to a's Job 34: 10. Is. 28: 6. So as to ja; Gen. 49: 
25. Is. 30: 1. Also as to iad Is. 61: 7. 

N. B. The commonly received and numerous ellipses of all possible 
prepositions, is altogether uncritical. Even those passages where one com- 
monly supplies 2, particularly after >, are to be explained by the adverbial 
Acc., or else by an Acc. governed by a verb ; to say nothing of many cases 
which actually belong to the Mominative, although they have been reckoned 
here. 


§ 152. consUNCTIONS. 277 
§ 152. 
Of Conjunctions. 

¥. When we sum up all the conjunctions, which frequently 
are of a compound nature, it appears that the Heb. language ex- 
hibits not a little of richness and of the figurative, in proportion 
to its simplicity elsewhere. ‘This is manifest from its power of 
forming conjunctions out of most of the prepositions, by joining 
on to them 78 or "3, (§102,1.¢). The writers, however, have 
not employed all the means furnished by the language, for the 
exact determination of the relation of sentences and clauses,* 
and often have they employed imperfect means of connecting. 
Hence the many meanings which a few favorite conjunctions 
have, (viz. 1, ">, 78), or at least whereby we must translate 
them in the western languages, which do not always allow of so 
loose a connection as is frequent in the Hebrew. (See No. 3 

below). 

I. Vav. Of the most extensive meaning is 1, 5, (§ 102, 2, 
comp. Ges. Thes. I. 393 seq.) 

(a) Properly and predominantly the copulative and, in the connecting of 
words as well as sentences. 

In the junction of threé or four words, it either stands between all; or 
the last, (Gen, 13: 2. 2 K. 23: 5); more seldom between only the first, (Ps. 
45:9). In certain formulas it is usually left out; as yesterday [and] the 
day before yesterday, (Ex.5: 8). In like manner, in animated description, 
accompanied by strong feeling, (constructio asyndeta). Judg. 5: 27, be- 
tween her feet he bowed down, fell, was prostrate. Job 20:19. Cant. 2: 
11. 5: 6. Is. 26: 17. 

(A) In the connecting of words, Vav (3) is sometimes used in an ExE- 
GETICAL way, (like isque, et quidem); e.g. 1 Sam. 28:3, i335 M253, 
in Rama, even his native city. 2 Sam. 13: 20. Amos 3:11. 4:10. Some- 
times this connection is such, that the second noun with a (4) before it, 
may be translated as an adjective to the first, (the Hendiadys, fy Suc duoi, 
of the grammarians); e. g. Gen. 3: 16, ‘I will greatly multiply 42577) 42532 
thy sorrow and thy conception, in the sense of thy sorrowful conception, 
or the sorrow of, ete., i. e. the sorrow with which childbearing is accom- 
panied. 

(B) In the connecting of sentences and clauses, Vav is, (1) Partly continuative, 
and corresponds to the English then (Germ. dann, da) before the after-clause, 


* See similar facts, in § 105, 1. n. § 144. n. 1. 


278 § 152. consuNCTIONS. 


and after an absolute limitation of time; e. g. Gen. 3: 5, ‘in the day that ye 
eat thereof, D2"252 MPD" then shall your eyes be opened.’ So Ex. 16:6, Prov. 
24: 27, AMA MD) ANN, afterwards shalt thow then build thy house [without 
the specific limitation of time, 1 Sam. 12: 15].. (2) Partly climactic ; e. g. 
Job 5: 19, ‘in six troubles will he deliver thee, 3235 even in seven, evil 
shall not touch thee.’ (3) It is comparative, i.e. it is employed between the 
members of a comparison = and so, and thus; e.g. Job 5: 7, ‘ Man is 
born to trouble, as (3) the sons of lightning [birds of prey] fly aloft.’* So 
also in Job 12: 11. 34: 3. Prov. 17: 3. 25: 3, 25, [al. saepe]. 

(b) Vav is oftentimes employed where contrast is intended, = and yet, and still. 
E. g. Judg. 16: 15, ‘wherefore dost thou say: I love thee, "MX J 22" 
and still thy heart is not with me? Gen. 15: 2. 18: 13, [al. saep.]. 

(c) Vay stands in a causat connection, i. e. before a clause giving a ground 
or reason ; where we mostly employ since. E. g. Ps. 5: 12, ‘ Let all who 
trust in thee rejoice, forever let them sing, 70m) since thou wilt protect, or 
Jor or because thou wilt protect ; Is. 43: 12, ‘ye are my witnesses, 58 "2, 
lit. and Iam God, i. e. that 1am God. Gen. 20: 3, ‘ Thou art about to die 
... for she (817}) is the wife of another man, [And thus oftentimes]. 

'(d) In deductive or consequential clauses ; and then it corresponds to our there- 
Sore, consequently. E. g. ‘Ido not desire the death of the sinner .. . 32°Wit' 
therefore turn ye.’ Even at the beginning of a sentence this Vav may stand, 
in case it is only a conclusion from something which precedes; e. g. 2 K. 
4: 40, 41, ‘and they could not eat; and he said: mMap-Anps, then, or there- 
Sore, bring me some meal,’ etc. Ps, 4: 4, 125, therefore know ye that etc. Ps. 2: 
6,10. 2 Sam. 24: 3. [al. saep.]. 

(e) Before clauses which indicate design, intention ; our that, in order that. 
It is then joined mostly with the Hortative and the Jussive modes, (§ 126). 

II. Scarcely less comprehensive are the two relative con- 
junctions “28 and "> = oz, quod, quum, and like our that, be- 
cause, because that. 'These two words are almost parallel with 
each other, except that "8x is also and properly a pronoun rela- 
tive, and may take prefix prepositions. But "2 is more fre- 
quent as a conjunction, and is very various in its uses. 

Both (like quod) are prefixed to a whole clause which is to be regarded as 
in the Acc., and as governed by a foregoing active verb. Before Vex the 
Ace. particle mx is often found; e.g. Josh. 2:10, ™ S921 WWR MN mp7 , 
we have heard that the Lord hath dried up, i.e. we have heard that thing, viz. 





* [So Gesenius and Roediger. I deem it quite as well to follow our English ver- 
sion: as the sparks fly upward. The sentiment is, that trouble is as natural to man as 
the flying upwards of sparks is to fire. This is at least more easy and natural than 
the other version, and not less poetic—S.] 


¢ 


§ 152. consuNcTIONS. 279 


that the Lord ete. More usually the same idea is expressed by "Hx 223720) 
simply, or by "2 "392W. 1 Sam. 24: 11, 19. 

(a) With this is connected the use of "> before direct speech, (like ozu of 
the Greeks, which see in Lex.). Seldom is "Wx employed in such a con- 
nection; as in | Sam. 15: 20. [In such cases, these particles, in written 
language, amount merely to our (“), the sign of quotation]. 

(b) These particles are often used to designate time = ots, (prop. at the 
time) that, (at the time) when, and therefore = when, at which time. This is 
quite distinct from 58 7, if that, then a conditional when; see many examples 
in Ex, xxi. Sometimes it is used in a transition to this, Job 38: 5, comp, 
4:18 [17]. [Obscure and unsatisfactory; in the first example, "> means 
provided that or since (ironical); the second (4:17) is merely = interrog. ; 
v.18 has neither "> nor “Yx]. In such a connection, "YX is rather un- 
frequent, but it is found in some cases; e. g. Lev. 4: 22. Deut. 11: 6. 

(c) To designate causality ; = eo quod, Germ. weil, because. Written out 
fully they would stand thus: "D> 535, "WX j27, and they are often to be 
translated by because, for, since that = yoo. If several reasons are coordi- 
nate, then we have "2—"2, Is, 1: 29, 30, or "21—">., because — and because, 
Job 38: 20. 

(d) Only “> stands adversatively, after a negation = but. (Suictly speak- 
ing it means for; e.g. thou shalt not marry a woman of Canaan, but (">) 
a Hebrew woman, = for thou shalt marry a Hebrew woman). Even 
when the negation is not,expressed, but lies merely in the sense of the pas- 
sage; e. g. after a question which contains a negative idea, (§ 150, 1, 2), 
then we may translate no, but; and we may even insert, in some cases, an 
intensive particle, as Mic. 6: 3, 4, ‘What have I done to thee?...I have 
even ("2) brought thee out, etc. ; or, we might translate : ‘Have I wearied 
thee? No, but I brought thee out,’ etc. Job 31: 18. (See on D8 "3D, § 152, 
2. 4. 

2. The other conjunctions we shall arrange according to their 
significations ; and with respect to those of various significations, 
(of which there are many), we shall give the different meanings 
in their connection, where they first occur. We can only take a 
very brief survey of them here, remitting the student to the Lexi- 
con of Gesenius for a more ample view with exemplifications. 


(a) Besides (3) the proper copulative, there are other adverbial copulatives ; 
e. g. 05 also, moreover; and likewise the intensive or climactic 5X, besides 
this, entirely, very, not only so but also. Both are once united in Lev. 26: 44. 
The first often designates increase of number or plurality; e. g. D878 OS even 
two; >D D3 even all or altogether. It is also employed to give emphasis to 
the word which follows it; e. g. Gen, 29. 30, ‘and he loved >ra-mx-ba Ra- 
chel indeed more than Leah,’ (not also Rachel). 1 Sam. 24:12. — "> 5x 


280 § 152. consuNCTIONS. 


properly means: it comes to this that; and thence, not to say moreover ; and 
(according to the connection) so much the more, so. much the less. 

(b) i& is a disjunctive, (by etymology it means free will, choice), hence or 
(vel), but also for aut (disjunctive or), 2K. 2:16. Sometimes it stands el- 
liptically for "> 4x, or (it must be) that, Is. 27: 5. Hence its transition into 
a conditional meaning, 7, if however, Ex. 21: 36 (Sept. gay dé, Vulg. sin au- 
tem); if indeed, 1 Sam. 20: 10; which has without good reason been called 
in question. (Comp. on "D4, § 147). Moreover the double in—ix, or—or 
= DXR—aonr. 

(c) Conjunctions of time are "D “ZN, = ots, quum, when, (see above). 
More seldom, in the like way, the conditional particle O&, (like the German 
wenn for wann), when, Is. 4: 4. 24: 18. 

Moreover we have 52, THX 33, "2 52, until that; also DN 43, (UR TD 
DN, until when; 73, during, 80 thsG as; ‘Tida, id.; WX "NS, after that ; 
TN2 (for THX IND), since that ; DIY and DID2, before ; man (for Ts NIP), 
before, Ps. 129: 6. 

(d) Causal conjunctions, or such as stand connected with the ground or 
reason of anything.—Besides “3 and “ON , (see above), we have “EN i> by, 
because that; or barely {> 53 without STN (§ 102, 1. c), Ps. 42: 7. 45: 3— 
(> >y “D (Gen. 18: 5. 19: 8. 2 Sam. 18: 20), and 32 >¥ “wx (Job 34: 27), 
both equivalent to "2 4D 59, "wi 4D 52, (see Ges. Thes. II. 682). Further, 
ws 25 by, TWN MiITIN 3, prop. on account of the circumstance that, = be- 
cause that ; also the eeugaria si uN “ara, for the reason that, because that ; 
MUN 5371, "D non, for that, bests that ; and so "D 23 (lit. for the reward 
that) , that. 

(e) Conjunctions indicating design or purpose ; “WX 43722, for the purpose 
or intent that ; “YX “APB, in order that, to the intent that, (also causal, as 
above). So (4 1) that, in order that { (see | above); and perhaps 1 K. 6: 19, 2. 
[Before the Inf, a in cases not a few, might be classed here].—With a NE- 
GATION, >X 7B, that not, (see in § 149). 

(f) Of condition; principally px and +, (rarely 55x), 7 The first, 
(which is often an interrogative, § 150, 2), marks pure conditionality, in re- 
spect to which it is doubtful, whether the thing should be regarded as hap- 
pening, or not, yet leaning to the first, (if I do, did, will do). On the other 
hand 53 ,* with the definite meaning that the thing in question does not, or 
will not, take place, or at least that this is very uncertain or improbable, 
(as, if I should do, if I had done). Hence 68 may stand, where "> would be 
more exact, (Ps. 50: 12. 139: 8. Hos. 9: 12); but not the reverse. In par- 
ticular, it is customary in assurances and conditional wishes always to em- 





* Fully written, s:5; as to origin the same as sid, 85, not; on which account, 
when uttered interrogatively, it amounts to an optative particle (§ 132, 2); as sans 45, 
may he not live? = if he may only live! Thence a conditional paviielel as if he lived! 
(which he probably does not). 


§ 152. consuNcTIONs. 281 


ploy =; as Ps. 7: 4—6, Sas pots mkt ome ox, if I have done this — 
then let the enemy persecute me, etc. In this case, the supposition is, that 
the speaker must have actually done the thing in question, in order to bring 
justly on himself the evil to be inflicted; [and the implication is, that he 
has not done it]. So in Ps. 44: 21. 78: 15. 187: 5. 

What has been said of ©& and 5>, naturally applies when these particles 
are connected with a negation; in which case they take the forms, 8d =x, 
xbab, shad. Of ox it should also be noted, that it conveys the idea of de- 
nial, when placed after the form of an oath; e. g. mint 1 as God lives, 
2 Sam. 11: 11. 20: 20. (85 5x8 would mark assurance, certainty). But in 
the first expression there is an edlipsis, which we occasionally find filled 
do so to me, and even more, tf, etc. Generally, therefore, after verbs of 
swearing, adjuring, ®X designates not, Cant. 2:7. 3:5; elsewhere poeti- 
cally, as Judg. 5: 8, Is. 22: 14. In regard to SX, ">, "U8, which occa- 
- sionally go over into the conditional meaning, see above. 

(g¢) Concession is expressed by 58% with the Perfect, (as although Lam), 
Job 9:15; also with the Imperf., (although Iwere), as in Is. 1:18. 10:22. 
— >» for “wx 53, although, Job 16:17 —*> Dx, even in case that, 
even if. iced 

() Comparison is expressed by “UND, as, guemadmodum; in the 
second clause by j>, as—so, Is. 31: 4. 52: 14, 15. Moreover, “UND may 
be omitted in the fore-clause, Is. 55: 9. Ps. 48:6. So jB is sometimes 
omitted in the after-clause, Obad. 5: 15. An entire agreement is denoted 
by w mas-b>, exactly so as. 

(2) Particles of contrast see above, among the adverbs. Decidedly there 
belongs here, *> DDN, only that — but, still; also the difficult 5X "2D, 
prop. that if, then if; most frequently but if, (see the meaning of "2 
above, undér lett. d) ; but when joined with 58 it designates connection 
to a verb; as Ps. 1: 1, ‘Happiness to the man who walks not in the coun- 
sel of the ungodly ... (v. 2) But if (mx "2) his delight is, etc.” Finally, 
directly for but; e. g. Ps, 1: 4. Gen. 32: 29. — Unless Gen. 32:27. Af- 
ter a negative, it means but, Gen. 39: 9. 28: 17. 

In respect to interrogatives, see § 150; and in respect to words of wish- 
ing, desiring, and the like, see lett. f. above. 


3. Acertain brevity and incompleteness* of expression (see 


* Rare is pleonasm and unnecessary fulness of expression ; e.g. ON "D, if, Ex. 22: 
22. (Comp. the old German wenn dass, [Eng. if that], = if it is that). Altogether 
vernacular, on the other hand, is a fulness of particles in the Chaldee; e.g. sa bapr>> : 
entirely because that = because. Same with M33 instead of "4. It is not pleonasm, 
but emphasis, which repeats j35 in Ley. 26: 43; like the Germ. alldiewedl, [and Eng. 


whereas, or because] . 
36 


282 § 153. INTERJECTIONS. 


No. 1) shows itself, among other things, in this, that a compound 
conjunction, fully expressing a relation, is not unfrequently rep- 
resented by only a part of the same; which part may be some- 
times the first-and sometimes the second. 

E. g. Instead of the full aby sz" because that = because, stands the 
shorter jz", or else YN; for swe as (Conj.), stands >, Is. 61:11; and 
six, Ex. 14:13. 1K. 8: 24. 

4, Still further is brevity consulted, when the conjunction, 
which normally would connect clauses or sentences, is entirely 
omitted. 

(a) This takes place, in conditional sentences; e. g. Gen. 33: 18, should 
one urge them on, (then) would they die, Job 7:20, have I sinned, what do I 
to thee? Gen. 42: 38. 

(b) In comparisons ; e. g. Ps. 14: 4, pm> s>=x way “bok, those who de- 
vour my people, (as) they devour bread, or (as if) they devoured ; etc. Job 


24:19, drought and heat take away the snow water, 3X2 >5NY (so) Sheol 
(those who) sin. Jer. 27: 11. 

(c) In clauses or sentences which are dependent on the relative conjunc- 
tions; e. g. Gen. 12: 13, say, AX “nin (that) my sister art thou, (usually 
"> is put before such clauses). Ps. 9: 21, that they may learn (that) they 
are men, Is. 48:8, for I knew (that) thou art unfaithful. Ps, 17:3, I 
have purposed, (that) my mouth shall not sin. In all these cases, the clause 
stands properly in the Accusative, § 139. n. 2. 


§ 153. 
Of Interjections. 

The interjections which mean wo ! alas !, are employed both 
in the outcry of wo, as well as in complaint about anything. 
ANN, 7%, 7H, connect themselves with the object of complaint 
by oy be, 2, or even without particles; e. g. %22.7X, wo tous ! 
Is. 1:4, "8 “in, wo to the nation! 1 K. 18: 30, "ns “in, alas! my 
brother. Respecting 735 with a suffix, see § 98, 5 


EXCURSUS. 


[The following Excursus are appended to the 13th edition of Gesenius’s Hebrew 
Grammar, but are omitted in the 14th edition by Roediger, a translation of which is 
contained in the preceding pages. The reason which Roediger gives for omitting them, 
is, that ‘ they seem to exceed the boundaries of elementary instruction.’ But sure I am, 
that every intelligent reader of the present Grammar will thank me for presenting them 
to him, as they contain matter of the deepest interest in regard to the antiquity of alpha- 
betic writing, and the affinity of the old Egyptian language with the Hebrew.—S } 


EXCURSUS I. (Comp. § 5 above). 


On the Forms and Names of Hebrew Letters, with reference to 
the invention of Alphabetic Writing. 


It has already been remarked, (§ 5,1), that for a right understanding of 
the names and forms of the Hebrew letters, we must go back to the Pheni- 
cian written characters, as they are the source of all alphabetic writing of 
hither Asia and of Europe. In them the 22 forms of letters are more or less 
plain imitations of sensible objects, whose names begin respectively with 
the letters, while the names of the letters as sounded designate those objects 
themselves. 

The Phenician writing took its rise from the hieroglyphical characters. 
But instead of designating, (like the later kyriological writing), a complete 
object, it represents only the first lelter in a name, The transition from hie- 
roglyphical writing to alphabetic, took place, as we find, very early, at least 
2000 years before the Christian era, among the Egyptians. The oldest writing 
of this people was only hieroglyphical. But since this did not express the 
sound of the words by which objects were called, the necessity of something 
to accomplish this, would very naturally be felt. Hence the ingenious in- 
vention of giving to each letter only the sound which it had at the beginning 
of the word with which it was connected, [and thus making it a representa- 
tive of sound, rather than of a thing]. E. g. the hand, in Egyptian tét, stood 
for #; the mouth (Egypt. ro), stood for r. This done, alphabetic writing 
(phonetic hieroglyphics) was already in existence. Of this the ancient Egyp- 
tians made constant use, in connection with their ideal signs or hieroglyphics. 
Besides this ideal writing (hieroglyphics) , used on the monuments and drawn 


284 EXCURSUS I. 


out in full, the Egyptians also had in use a more negligent and popular one 
for objects of common life, in which the forms of the other writing 
were greatly abridged and shortened, so that it consisted of only a few 
rough sketches; and this is called Aieratic writing,* [a kind of short- . 
hand hieroglyphics] . 

It was very probably in view of these historical facts, that the Phenicians, 
(who in very ancient times were closely connected by intercourse with the 
Egyptians), invented a new and much more convenient and practical alpha- 
bet. Entirely abandoning hieroglyphics, with their countless number of 
forms, they chose 22 signs or symbols for the 22 consonant-sounds of their 
language. These, for the most part, were abbreviated figures of objects, 
(somewhat as in the hieratic writing); yet so that the figures and names 
were not borrowed from the Egyptians, but taking their invention. merely 
as a pattern, they proceeded to invent signs appropriate to their own lan- 
guage. ‘T'o determine precisely at what period this was done, and where, is 
not now feasible, because the documents of facts are wanting. But that the 
Phenician writing, after the example of the Egyptian, was invented by Phe- 
nicians who lived among the Egyptians, somewhere about the period when 
the Phenician shepherd-kings had dominion in Egypt, must be regarded as 
a very probable supposition.t 

The names of the letters are Phenician, in forms somewhat different from 
the Hebrew; and the explanation of them, in connection with the Pheni- 
cian, is in most cases beyond doubt, and only in a few is it attended with 
any difficulty. Even this seems to result merely from the very abridged 
condition in which the forms of the letters concerned appear. The idiom 
of the O. Test. does not always suffice for the explanation of them. 

[The author here presents a view of the Phenician forms, and an explanation of the 
meaning of the names respectively. The first he could easily do, from his Phenician 
apparatus. But it must be omitted here, because the tzme and the expense necessary to 
have such forms engraved, entirely prevent it. The significations are given above in 
§ 5, 4.1, where the reader may see them.—S.] 

The transition from the Phenician writing to the square forms of the He- 
brew, took place gradually, and through many intermediate links. It is too 
extensive and manifold to be exhibited here. An immediate daughter of the 





* The principal book on the oldest modes of writing in Egypt (the hieroglyphic 
and hieratic), is Champollion’s Grammaire Egyptienne, Paris 1836. fol. A synopsis of 
the principal well grounded results is given by Lepsius, Le Lettre & Rosellini sur [ Al- 
phabet hieroglyphique, Rom. 1837. 8vo. An abridgment of this by Gesenius, is in the 
Allgem. Litt. Zeitung of Halle, 1839. Nos. 77—81. 

t See Article on Palaeographie in Ersch and Gruber’s Encyclop. § 3. B.ix. Comp. 
Hitzig, Die Erfindung des Alphabets, Zurich, 1840. fol. Olshausen, Ueber den Ursprung 
des Alphabets, Kiel, 1841. 8vo. It deserves special notice, that so many of the names 
of letters relate to objects of pastoral life. Some also appear to be of Egyptian origin ; 
at least the Tet. 


EXCURSUS II. 285 


‘ 
Phenician was the old Aramaean, (see Monum. Phenic. tab, 4); from this 
arose the Palmyrene (tab. 5); and the Hebrew square-character sprung from 
this. The Hebrew method of writing stands related to the Palmyrene as 
independent or fracture-writing to running or juncture-writing. 


EXCURSUS IIL. (Comp. § 32). 


Etymological Analysis of the Personal Pronouns. 

Already, (in a Note above on § 32), has the striking resemblance of the He- 
brew pronouns to the ancient Egyptian ones been mentioned. What we here 
design is, briefly to carry this through, because, in this way, some important 
considerations will present themselves, that have respect to the rise of the 
pronouns and their etymological analysis; and tbis will throw light on 
other phenomena of the language. Several of them agree with observations 
which Hupfeld has made only by the aid of analogy in the Semitic lan- 
guages, (Zeitschr. f. d. Morgenl. IL s. 124 seq. and s. 427 seq.). In this way 
his remarks will receive still stronger confirmation. 

The ancient Egyptian Pronouns are here subjoined; in respect to which 
it should be remarked, that those printed in capitals represent the letters as 
given in the ancient writing; the vowels (represented by small letters) are 
borrowed from the Coptic. 


Sep. Pronoun. Suffix. 
a; ANoK Al 
2.m. eN Tok K 
2ef LeN To ly 
3.m. eN ToF F 
3.f. eNToS Ss 
i 3) ANaN N 
or eNTOTeN TeN 
3. eNTSeN SeN 


The general parallelism with the Hebrew must strike every observer, 
We will, therefore, only add the following remarks: 

(1) The separate pronouns in general are composed from the appropriate 
germ of the Pronoun, and a prefix-syllable, an, ant, ent, which must have had 
a demonstrative meaning, and served to give to very short words more body 
and more force. We have then: an-ok. 2. ent-ok, ent-o (probably made by 
dropping the k). 3. ent-of, ent-os. Plur. 1. an-an. 2. ent-oten. 3. ent-sen. 

(2) The same prefix-syllable, (at least an), the pronouns have in Hebrew, 
in the first two persons; viz. an-oki, an-i. 2. an-ta (kindred form, an-ka), 
fem. an-ti, an-t. Plur. an-ahhnu. 2. an-tem, an-ten. The third pers. has it 


286 EXCURSUS II. 


not in the biblical idiom; but in the Talmud, 428 is used for he, very fre- 
quently; plur. 7238 out of 7AM. 

(3) If one compares the essential parts of the pronominal forms in both 
languages, it will be seen that the third pers. plur. sen and the Hebrew hem, . 
hen, correspond; as in Greek, d¢ and ov, and so the Latin sus. So in the 
sing., of (whence comes %), fem, os, answer to the slender hu, hi. In the 
forms of, os, the vowel o stands before the essential part, in Hebrew behind 
it, (comp. MH} and 18). The same is exhibited in other forms; as in the 
Heb. an-oki. We shall see, in the sequel, another mark thereof in the Heb. 
conjugations. 

(4) The demonstrative prefix-syllable, an, in, (8), has a plain analogy with 
the Hebrew 45 see! And it may have been omitted in the third person 
originally, because one could not well refer to this as present. Plainly do 
we find the same again, in the Heb. so-called Wun epenthetic, (§ 57, 4. n.), 
e. g. y’bha-rekhen-hu ; and there is scarcely room for doubt, that this syllable 
belongs to the pronoun. In Egyptian, it sounds fuller in some of the forms 
—ent (with appended t, whose demonstrative power is shown by Hupfeld, ut 
sup. 135. 437). This ent, (also et), is in Coptic a relative for which; and so 
enta in the Aethiopic; plainly, however, like all relatives, originally demon- 
strative. As such the Hebrew has it in its MX and mix, (see § 35, n. 2. 
§ 115, 1. n.). With suffix, it is ink, he and him, cams (Egypt. ent-sen), 
with weakening and letting drop the Vun in the middle of the word; like 
to nm out of mm, § 19, 2. 5. 

(5) Immediately behind the prefixed demonstrative, and at the beginning 
of the pronoun, we find an o (probably by change of sound made from a); 
as ent-oten, ye; ant-ok, thou, Heb. an-oki. Is there not a remnant of this re- 
tained in Dniad, onivap2, On iaqp, of verbs 2S and 43; and consequently 
did not this 0 originally belong to the pronoun, as much as the Vun epen- 
thetic? Analogy speaks for it; and by the remarks adduced in § 66, 4, the 
appearance is not explained differently, at least for verbs 12. The (*—) in 
m"23ph can very appropriately be explained as being virtually the first syl- 
lable of mr. 


PARADIGMS 


OF THE 


Pron OU ws AND Ve ROB. 


[In the edition of Roediger, the Paradigms of the Verbs are printed as here, with 
the exception of the asterisks which he has affixed to all the forms which he calls nor- 
mal, i.e.forms after the model of which the other forms are composed. An attentive 
consideration of this subject has led me to the full persuasion, that this is more of a 
hindrance than a help to the beginner; and others do not need it. Much better is it 
to teach the learner in what way the root of the verb is modified as to vowels in reg- 
ular verbs, and yowels and cousonants in irregular ones, by the formative-suffixes and 
prefixes; and also by the various conjugations. This will give him a clear insight 
into the essential constitution of a verb, in all its developments.—S.] 


288 A. Tue PERSONAL 

















Nonunative of Pronoun Accusatwe of Pronoun. 
OR 
Pronoun separate. 
AL. 
Simple Form. 
Sing. 1. comm. *338, in pause |"J; *32-; 92> me. 
"DON; "IN, in pause | 
"IN L 
m. TiN (AN), wn > Jz» IN pause F> 
ause FIMN 7. 
P re thou. Gj ’ ) thee. 
prop. "F)&) 
m. S157 he. 1, 45 WS GF), 5 WS 
3: him. 
fi S°N1 she. 11; Fi; r= her (eam). 
Plur. 1, comm. TIN (99773),| 92; 125 122 us (nos). 
(138) we. 
m. DON n>, 03— 
peeenye, sud ou (vos). 
fi As, maps a acd 
m. 0, 7871) (On), 0; o,, BR, 
D2 Seth oe 
3 they. Uggs Solid he 


them (eos). 
FPR a CFDs 13 Fe GA)5 P= them 
(eas). 


* The forms with a star are here the exclusively poetical ones. Those in a paren- 


Pronoun.* 


or Suffix of Verb. 


B. 


With Nun demonstrative. 
eee 


> 


> G22) 


(occurs not) 
Wy, 122-, (4) 


. 


ma 


> 


a 


These forms 


occur not. 





x 


289 
Genitive of Pronoun or Suffix of 
Noun (Pron. possessive). 


eC 





7. FE 
To a Noun Singular. |To a Noun Dual and PI. 
“— mine. “— mine. 
se teeiee ze 
ause 7\— . ‘ 
P > | thine. thine. 
Ie Sher 


W513 1 . 4 (7) V-= 9 3 Ww 
his. his. 


Our. 
55, ae | ni 
@ ae = your c your, 
12> j2> aay 
on; oO on—,n=* 
| sae 
their. their 





Ths Ts J 








thesis are unusual forms, which however are necessary to a view of analogy. 


37 








[Bb] ReeunarR 








Niphal. 


Piel. - 




















Perfect, 3. m. Sup let Pup dup 
3. i rimaeep... eazre:,| pep? nbup 
2m  mbap maa nebp nip 
2. mbup nad Pup] PEP 
1. smbbp MTD nbbps “mdb 

Plur. 3. vup map up up 

2m. ombop onI32 pabups on>up 

2 f jmeop TAD jmewps meh 

1. wobp = aD» wpa — 

If: PoP bug bap 

Inf. absol. — S4aP (Sopa) Supn Sep 
Imp. m. Sop ee SOPpN Sup 

f Sep oma Sup bee 
Plm  %>0p asaa rdbupn = ap 

fF meep nee mubepn hp 

Impef. 3m. “Stapn tn’ Sapna 
3 f  bbpn saan bpm Supn 
2m. opm osaom = bupm Seen 
2 fo ep REN RPR UP 
1 Sey aby Sey Supa 

Pl3. m- sbupy oa apr abs 
3 f nPben naan mbben natn 
2m. uPA wasn uM abupm 
2 f mbepn vrasn mabben nbupn 
1. pts |. ociwenees | Sepa bes 

apocopate Impf: (Jussive) . 

Part. act... tap 722 bop? dup 
pass. baup 








VERB. 


=I 
ee 
“CO. Ga 
way 
sf .2t.3 


a a 


BS 
ws 
Vw" “J 
ss r 
.C 
. NP Shes 
— 


CG 
> fe 
be 


ay. 28 
IE VS 
C.oC Cc 
oS x 
yee | Ppa | es | 


ae 
feel Bt. Go! 


2s 
2 ae ies 

CG 
ark 
—— 


ASupH 
WSOP 


5 BG 
“J 
3.6 
raw) 
ips Poe | 
“j .-1 


TW 
iss | 
i | 








vr © tthe 





‘ a 
cs Macey, Macs fa 


ao 
Ww 
> 6 
jo Sue 
J 


fit 


apm 

upn 
‘OPM 
bop 


ei 

wa. 
Gee 
acme 
ay 4 


= 6's. 


<<. = 5 "nes £ 





292 


[C] Reeurar VERB 





Suffixes. I Sing. 2 Sing. m. 2 Sing. ff 3 Sing. m. 





Perf. Kal. 3.m.  a5up pup yup 


3. f. camdup Anup yndup 


2. fi pmbup — 


le — ssmdup padup 


Plur: 36 ¢. "Up sup Jip 


lhe  —  4dup srdup 


ads 
Tup 


se 


mmeUP 


meen 


in>up 


IM APUP 


ad 
wmpup 
mu 
wmineup 
wma Up 





TUR) 
Inf: Kal. et xg J 2Up 








Imp, Kal. sup eee a 





Impf: Kal. 3. m. "PoP" bop? soup 


with Nun demonstrat. 


Plur. 3. m. “yup? BISwp? PPP? 


pop Feo. — 


DOP 








Perf. Pie. Bwp FBP TBP 


sup 


WiTH SuFFIXES. , 298 





3 Sing. f- 1 Plur. 2 Plur.m. 2 Plur.f 3 Plur.m. 3 Pl: 








moup weep ossep jetep aloe dup 
mmbup wnsup DaneuP janzup oneup jnzup 


mnebp wep —  Bnebp jnbup 


vr? 
. 


mhbup awhbop = — — oMbop prpup 


mAbup — opnbop joyn>up onbup pabup 
miSop awsop OBLP jooup oup. pup 
minebp ARR — = manbup pnbup 


Mabe — , B2VWAwP TaMAR DUeLP jWhuP 








mabe 7mp B2hbe be Deke PhP 








np? DI>ypr jo>upy abup> joupr 


mabup) SUP) 
mbup) wey? OBEuP? FBNuPD BIR? PdyR? 





meup ep DIuP j2ruPp Dep jebP 














294 [D] Vers First GuTTURAL. 
Kal. NViphal Hiphil. Hophal 
Perfo 3B. m. Ta? 727) PAM TWIT 
ay an LL 
2m ATP AT MAP ATI 
a a Ya 
I ‘TDS. TOP] Nar AID 
Plur..3, 707 "7033 IP aI 7097 
2. m. on wap on 7ay3 on 1297 OF) TAI 
2... WAP Ta 77) m5 097 TAs 
1. "TO? NTH ") a7 Pie 
Inf- TAP TAS era: ee 
Inf. absol. Tay The. TOP 
ooo 
Imp. m. hab Pi TOI TNE 
fines BA ERTS Ee 
Pl m. (702° $pie stag wpe B 
f may. aapin aan nen 
Inpf. 3m. ae. PI ae. may ap 
Ay Tan Pun Tan Way TAP 
2m. Toyn pin Ten Wan ayn 
2. f. TON PII “eh en APN 
1. ODN PIN’ TADS mazN DN 
Plur. 3. m= * s07" IW Ways W779 4 ve" 
= Pale 5 Td sition Mpinn md Shon md sion nd wasn 
2. m. 709m ‘pIIN 09m ben san 
2. f. nqien mpinn nyse | maqam nyiaon 
1. “nya pine mney Sapa 
apoc. Impf: ( Jussive). way" 
Part. act. Tay Tay) Ward) ‘Way 
pass. TOY j 


























[#Z] VerR MIDDLE GurTuURAL. 295 

Kal. Niphal. Piel. == Pual. ~~ Hithpael. 

Pefi3.m Uno onw FJ FW Pann 

3. f nono nonw2 nsw ADI! Asann 

2m. MoAD MuAw] nde AIA AsEnn 

2 f mone Mone] PII ADI ASIN 

I ombAD MUA? oma AD pti 
Plyi3.  sOM@ Mw? IB IB aN 
2m. onUMw MAOAw) oMIa oAIboNdIann 

2. fyponw yponw) jmsq jmp er 

1. sonw wonw)] wR WAR wABNNA 

Inf: one unten 6 aIB FTAA 
Inf. abso.’ DIN winw Fina | 
Imp.m Od onwm F712 Jn 

J "On “OnwA 272 (wanting). 5 273nn 

Pl. m sone OMT W073 1D p7sn7 

fi mphd meni na nyaann 

Impf:3.m. OG. oes A822 aM 

af onwA bNtn Fan FAM Anh 

2m. ontn unten 77a FAA Fann 

2. fcoNwA “onwM “san "ITA *DqaNA 

lL DNDN ONGe FS FIR zanx 

Plur. 3.m. (omy? meme 7a. AM 

3: 7. mun momen Aman man moana 

2. m. noNwe last Ian IIA ISN 


~~ ss S - © 


m3 man md ann 











1. “pti “on 773) 
Impf. with Suff: mone 
Part. act. oni onws 7722 
pass. = DIN 


37193 57an3 


yn -y7BNA 

















296 [F] Vers 
Kal. Niphal. Piel. 
Perf: 3. m. nw mows nw 
irs mnhw minbws ans 
2. m. andw nndwa andy 
2. ante niwi nnée 
1 “Anw “Anew Ande 
Plur. 3. amt . anbws wow 
2. m. onnte onndws band 
aay. ans inne: inne 
1. nee nsw nw 
Inf. nou mown rib 
Inf. absol nibw nwa now 
Imp. m. now nun now 
fom oben rs 
PL m. andw snbtn andy 
f nse ant money 
Impf: 3. m. not now" nus 
J movin nun noun 
2. i. nou noun notin 
2, bw ‘btn TSUN 
1. te ndvin nous 
Plur. 3. m. ant ati nes 
Ma mnsin mntgn manda 
2, m. ew mown wnotin 
2 f omni  omnben nan bon 
1. nowy mows mous 

apoc: Impf: (Sussive) 

Impf: with Suff- pinihiy 

Part. act. ndig nbwa nbwn 


Pass. 


mow 


























THIRD GuTTURALS 297 
— Pual Hiphil. =o . Eithpael. 
nw moun noon nenwn 
mn mpown snbun anmbawn 
nndw nnton anton = mnSan 
Ante andin nmin | mn§nwn 
Andy Ano smnswn ‘nn>nwn 
nde moan snbwn inbaun 
onfbs = onnbwn oon ane anreng 7 
eee omben geben nin 
andy mst umn 1 Snsrtn 
now Town re nonwn 
| mown 
nown nner 
ton snbnwn 
( wanting) aed (wanting) 1 
moun meno 
meen nanenwn 
Se ree ie bw" nm 
bon bun nbuin nbmun 
nowin mown mown nonin 
‘nba icon ndwn nonw 
nowy mows ndwx ae 
Tah Tax sm n>no 
manda arstn smandin ya non 
n> on Son anton inbnon 
sanven nInstn mine Sin ninsnun 
new nnta neta nbn 
> noes : ? 
non mw new nnn 


298 
[See “B p. 800.] 
Perf. 3. m. 
“omy Begs 
2. m. 


St 


Plur. 


J 


mm NNW &w S&S 


iyf 
Inf: absol. 


Imp. m. 


J 
Plur. m. 


eM... 


Impf: 3. m. 
3. f 
2. m. 
2. fi 

1. 
Plur. 3. m. 
Bt. 
2. Mm. 
20%. 


'y 


[G] VERBS MIDDLE RADICAL 





Impf: with Vav consec. 305) 


Tinpf: with Suf- 


Part. act. 
pass. 





3720 


Kal. 
30 
30 
mi30 
mind 
sabele) 
et) 
oniad 
77120 
Phere) 
ate) 
3420 
30 
2d 
ne 
a e P 
25" nd" 
207m non 
307 adn 
nabn 207 
3ON 258 
rad? 20" 
npaon naan 
day maoh 
MP3ON n72o7 
nd) 53 
230 
2310 


Niphal. 
203 
mad), 
miada 
minds 
"i203 
1203 
Bnisd3 
yD 
"91209 
non 
2107 
2on 
"2071 
1200 
myaon 


307 
3P, 
397 

"207 
ION 
128" 

nyaon 

1207 

ny aon 
293 


303 


DOUBLED, OR Y>. x 





299 








Hiphil. — Hophal. Poel. Poal. 
207 3037 2340 3310 
ma0n mao mand - M2340 
nizon nino maaio maaio 
minor nisow maaio naaio 
id00 Sab etebi Maaio MMIaIO 
y2dn 120% a3 i0 12270 
BHisoOn aniaoiwn nmazio onaaio 
wise NEON yao = AARP 
Wiaon Dow waaI0 W23i0 
207 
307 2057 2350 3340 
207 2370 
"20m saa40 
"20h (wanting) Wani0 (wanting) 
mS07 ; m233%0 
30° (452) 304 (ad) BHO 9510" 
on 505m ‘Sion sajon 
non ately S330n sajon 
"207 "ab0n "anion "ation 
DN DIN 33 70N 33708 
120" ley W230" 13310" 
maOn mpB0In masion © Aa5ien 
yon (DDIM yasion nazion 
mPa PEON = TaagION | AaAR Ion 
30) 3099 53103 3303 
20%) 
"9307 (0320") "a3 15" 
2020 30170 32100 23700 


[H] VeRBs jp. 

















Kal. Niphal. Hiphil.  Hophal. 
Perf. 3. m. wad upp m3 win 
B. if sag awn nti 
2. m. nda] AW nwa 
2. f "> ae 
1. (regular) "AWS] WAN (NWA 
Plur. 3. 1009 wan Tubb 
2. m. ons) = ontin = onwan 
2. f. rae Ee 3 Testa wT 
1 nwa wi | WAN 
Inf. nos | wan wan win 
Inf: absol. wig 397 wat 
Imp. m. ws mao wat 
t (OW 
Plur. m. Top TEE evan (wanting) 
fo MOR nwa aIwan 
Impf: 3. m. wa wae" wy wan 
3. f tim on wan 
2. m. war ob Tal win 
2 f stan on ‘sn 
1 tN (regular) DAN wan 
Plur.3.m 133" yoy) Nah 
3. ff mawin nIvan — }IwiN 
2m. OIF Wan wan 
2 f.  mIwan mivin Adin 
1. 33 wad OE) 
apoc. Impf: (Jussive.) on 
Part. act. wa3 w33 abby wo 
pass. wad f Me 


[I] Reesie VERB RS. 301 
Kal. Niphal. Hiphil. Hophal. 
Pefi P28 PID ENT PRN 





(like Verbs first Guttural) 











lif. DON PORAINTV SSDI | FBR 
Inf. abso. = DN NA | 
fee 6a) (nae 
Plur. m. "55s 
ff maREN 
Impf. 3.2m. 28 Dons Dan Da 
bs oa SoNn (etc.) (etc.) (ete.) 
2m. SONM 
Boye ML"SOND 
1. doe 
Plur. 3. m. 152s 
3. fi m323Nn 


2. m nSOND 
S20 f. omb3Nn 





1. 59N) 
Impf: with = Mig 
Vav consec. 22s ")s TAN 2 
Part. act. bok DON} DONA boND 


pass. Dime 


302 


Perf. 3. 


i 


Plur. 


Ss 5 


HP P&E Dw Bw 


inf 
Inf: absol. 


Imp. m. 
J 
Plur. m. 
St 
Impf: 3. m. 
3. f: 
2. m. 
2. f 

1. 
Plur. 3. m. 


3. f 


> Me 


2. f: 
] 


apoc. Impf. (Jussive.) "i 





Impf: with Vav consec. ato 


Part. act. 
pass. 





[A] Feesite Verss 





Kal. _ WNiphal. 
a0" 304) 
maw 
novia 
nawiia 
(regular) maw 
wi 
pnawi 
ynawio 
"awa 
nao, Td" 3090 
a0 ; 
eo 
30 ov an 
so an 
2D wa? "207 
7220 my natin 
ak ai ay" 
atin oyn aun 
tn oyn stim 
"awn, OTA "An 
SUN oN SIN 
yaw" wy eth 
math OT 2200n 
"oun wn iawn 
atin men maw 
a) v7 awh 
20" 2043 
a1 : 


"2 (FoR ‘p). 


~ [JZ] Proper Verss ». 303 














Hiphul. Hophal. Kal. Miphil. 
awn 3017 a0" SO 
naw maw nao 
natin = maw nau 
navin = mawin navy 
‘avin man (regular) abn 
win yaw on 
onavin = onawin onlo 
agin = jnawin man 
nabin = awn 20°n 
OIn 2007 nb mela 
Soin, avin 3107 50°71 
aon 20" 20°71 
‘ein | 300 oT 
ein (wanting) ee on 
maagin maaby REN 
Shs 300 =n Sion 
win 201 2m >On 
son 3007 20h mobo 
ee 
SiN IN SDN DON 
won oy lobby abo 
navin = m2awn naan naan 
Dyin wn on in 
mavin = IQ bP mab nbn 
wi tub 50") 30") 
207 30". 
3084 an), Ver 
2010 3040 204 370" 


10° 


[M] Feesie VERBS 














— Kal. Niphal. Hiphil. Hophal. 
Perf. 3. m. Oop Dip2 opn Opa 
Bf mp Dp. OE RAN 
2. m. noe nap nine Appin 
a: f. nop ominpl oninpn  mapin 
1. Map  NiD%p3 nN PA ee ay) ale 
Plur. 3. "op = aip2_— PM. apn 
2m. ond oninrpa ona pn onapn 
ef. ap NAP noe nap 
I wap Wop way. wap 
Inf, pip eign so opin 
Inf. absol. Dip open opm, Opn 
Imp. m. ae npn a 
fae RIP STEN P tite 
Plur. m. wp ipa comp 
fap RPM maT 
Inpf: 3. m. pap Dip? np pp. 
Lg DIpn DPA mph opin 
2, m. Dipn DPM DPA opin 
2f ph IPR. DPR pin 
1. Dips DEN DPN DpAN 
Plur, 3. m. vanp? vane" "ap yaa 
3 f TBP NTP TEN AyaPAM 
2. m. PA ‘pM Dp yop In 
2 f mpppn moPM  maeM | MIPIM 
1. Dips Dip3 D3 np 
apoc. Impf- op op? 
Impf: with > consec. OPA, Op") aa 
Impf: with Suff. 3 ‘ap sale 
Part. act. Op Dip2 Dp opi 
pass. Dp 























>, . [N] Feesre Verss "%. 305 
Pilel. Pulal. Kal. NViphal. 
Oo 
DBP on4p j2 oP 7133 
manip maoip | nya nya ia7 
manip = aap | maa oma ida 
manip mooip | oma mia mi 
ODP ‘Moai | mya ni. 13923 
"Dip van'p > a 
ona 1p onan | one ona nnina3 
nap yanaip | jmya nina TPP 
"0D%p 0D'p nm oayisya, 4375929 
Dap Daip P3 yan 
j2 yan 
nip he yan 
2D 1p ite 
‘otp (wanting) appa! (as Dip) 
magi = 
Daip" Dip" y3) 73) 
oaipn Bipn ran 
onipn onipn pan (as DIP) 
“anipn “anipn an 
DDIPN ODiPS aN 
‘nip voip hy 
mnaipn aD pA | APN 
vanipn naipn aN 
moan maaIPH | ayan 
Dnip2 pap pa 
Is, 
727) 
: ; "3°" 
onipa paipa 3 y22 
y12 








306 [O] FersLie VERBS 
Kal. NViphal. Piel. 

Perf: 3. m. xx Se yab Nx 
3. f. NED NSD) meen 

2, m. neko nen nxn 

2. f: mNED TNS nvzn 

1. ‘NEQ NED "ND 

Plur. 3. NSD NSS Ap] Nz 
2. m. onsz2 OnN203 OnNsn 

2. ff NZD INT WnNsN 

i nNSO NINE DI HNO 

Inf: x30 xan 832 
Inf. absol siz N20) xkn 
Iinp, m. xx NZAN x70 
f "NED ‘NEON "N20 

Plur. m. eal wen cet) 

f meso maNSaA NSD 

Impf: 3. m. xxn" xa" xx" 
3. ft sxon xan zon 

2. m. xeon, xzan Nxon 

2. f. ‘NEON "NEEM *NzOn 

1. NzON NN NEON 

Plur. 3. m. aN wNSD NSD 
3. f MINED TNEER | ANSON 

2. m. wen won wNEOn 

2 f mINzOn nINEa = Aeon 

, sso) NEED N3 
apoc: Impf: (Jussive.) a 
Impf: with Suf. "79310" "N10" 
Part. act. NZD N20) xz00 
pass. BRIA) 




















xd, 3 307 
Pual. HMiplul. Hophal. tee 
x0 son NSD 2ann 
a wit 
m8 0 NSON | NED NEAT 
MNS nazan nezon | -nNgOnN 

NSO (MNES NED (NENT 
‘Nz wen zon won 
DONS  oOnNsOn oonesan oonssonn 
jANSO IANS jAsson wnssonn 
mNzo oston oo Neon | yNkann 
N= ws N<Or) xsann 

xzon . 
xzon xzann 
swkan NeOnN 
(wanting) Wen (wanting) wNtOnh 
mINsDH manson 
N30" sn? x0) ssn" 
Nzon | OA NxO7 xzanh 
xzOn ws xzon szann 
EON | OED NED NENA 
NEON LON NON NEON 
WED ween NO" ywxon" 
MINIM mason onan = TNs aNA 
wNEOA wwson NzOn, qNSOnn 
meson oo TINEOM | TNE | wNZNN 
Nx ED) xz) Nan 

x=0° 
"area? 

axa wenn xs00 exon 


inf 
Inf. absol. 


i mp. m. 


Plur. 3. m. 


apoc. Impf: 


Impf. with Suff: 


Part. act. 
pass. 


[P|] Feesie VERBS 





Kal. Niphal. 
m4 m>33 
' tab) sanbay 
md nasa 
ns maa 
"APA "7533 
nba N53) 
nya ons) 
ya ae 
eae 17°53) 
nda nipan 
m3 3533 
m3 moar 
"Dd Dan 
nba Noam 
maa nya 
nea nips" 
man nan 
rin 
"oan ET 
mbin moan 
oan nba 
nnbon moan 
‘ban Eg 
n25n myoan 
‘riba 233 
ba 23" 
2 
m3 233 


aby) 


Piel. 
D4 
minds 
nabs 
mdy 
mba 
abe 
ona 
anny 
aba 
mis 
mo 
ns 








309. 
Hithpael. 
nani 
mnbann 
n sbann 
ntann 
mann 
ann 
om>inn 
imbann 
"ANA 
nibann 
nbann 
mann 
ann 
ann 
nabann 
mam" 

‘ sbinn 
sbann 
Sonn 
aban 
bans 
mbann 
“ann 
nbann 
hang 


ban? 





Hb, ‘ 
Pual Hiphil. | Hophal. 
123 237 230 
anba--ennban stepmban 
nada nadia nian 
m53 moan moan 
mfg oma  onibin 

aa nan 13m 
Re 
mma pa aman 
ry an Pabst 
nida nian nian 
a moan 371 

rban 
(wanting) ee (wanting) 

idan S 

wap ean 
Da" PEW ma" 
nban nban nban 
aban san nbsn 
‘ban ‘Son ban 
mbax DIN mbiN 
nba" Hoan bon 
nahin mban m3 shan 
“ban “sn “yan 
aban aman apbon 
‘pba “nbda mba 

by 

359" 
730 mean 2300 


aban 


310 Vers “» AND 7. VERBS jB AND 8D, 


Kal. Miphil.| Kal. Niphal. Miphul. 














Poff oa omin, km km UA 
Sr ANITA TA 
2. m. nn an sin mw nNiwg nun 
3. pl. ia sin | (as Nd) 

Inf. may oman] neo 

Inf: abs. 77 . (reg.) 

Imp. mm) m0 Su) 

f he ve tas | ONG 

Tmporfe SVR TN oe RE eco Sate nn 
SH pl. 4" > IN" wis" WOU 
apoc. Impf- ahhh) (reg.) 





Part. act. na min (reg.) 
pass. 9" 


(* From Nw, not xwv3). 














VerRBs }® AND #1. VERB R13. 
Paf 703 aon NB nor 
(as 5) 2. m. mon mx (as x5) 
Inpf: mek He iow 3. pl. 182 (483) 
3. pl. Tom Toh Imp. 852” (asia) x3" 
apoc. Impf: > ws |Jmp. N13 (N23) 3 pl TPN 
(the rest as 5) Imp. FOF Part. N23 20 


Hoph. R210 3. fe N37 
2m. ANNI Ful. Na 
Part. x31 


INDEX. 


(The numbers refer to the pages of the Grammar; n. refers to Notes). 


A-sound, 27. 

Abbreviations of words, 20. 

Absolute Cases, 260. 

Abstract for Concrete, 150; express- 
ed by the fem., 199; more usually 
with the article, 205. 

Accents, 40 seq. 

Accusative, marked by m&, 216; by 
mM, 162; governed by the verb, 
250 seq.; double Acc., 252; adver- 
bial Acc., 187, 188, 217, 218. 

Adjective, periphrasis of it by a noun, 
196, 197; when it takes the article 
with a noun, 209, 210; without 
the noun’s having it; 209. 

Adverbs, 187 seq.; syntax, 265 seq.; 
expressed by a verb, 256. 

Alphabet, forms, names, and powers, 
of the letters, 18 seq. 

Aphaeresis, 47. 

Apocope, 47; of verbs, 139, 141. 

Apposition, 212, 215. 

Arabisms, 56, 80, 95, 97. 

Article, 81 seq.; use made of it, 
Synt., 203 seq. 

Aspirates, 23, 38, 39. 

Assimilation, 47, 48, 105, 121. 


Case-endings, remains of, 162 seq. 

Chaldaisms in Hebrew, 9 seq., II, 
90, 92; of third pers. fem. Imperf., 
95; of Piel, 104, n. 1; of verbs 4>, 
141; of Imperf. in verbs 3, 123; 
of verbs 13, 134; of plural nouns, 
157; of fem. nouns, 147, 148. n. 

Collectives, 199, 201 seq.; syntax of 
them, 260 seq. 

Common gender, nouns of, 198, 200. 





Comparative degree, 218. 

Composite ideas in the plural, 202, 
203; with the article, 206; with 
suffix, 221; how constructed, 260 
seq. 

Compound words (unfrequent), 74, 
75, 149, 187. 

Conditional sentences, 279, 280 seq. 

Conjugations, or derived Verbs, 84, 
85; number and order, 85, 86; un- 
usual conjugations, 109 seq. 

Conjunctions, 193; syntax of, 277. 

Conjunctive or Subj. mode, express- 
ed by the Imperf., 234, 

Consonants, sound and division of, 
18 seq. ;—weakened to vowels, 47. 

Construction asyndic, 255, 282. 

Contraction by assimilation, 47; of 
vowels by quiescence, 58. 

Copula, how designated, 258. 


Daghesh, 35 ;—forte, 35 seq.; differ- 
ent kinds of, 48 seq.; not received 
by a Guttural, 52; nor by Resh, 54 ; 
omission of, in verbs Ayin doubled, 
126. 

Daghesh lene, 39 seq. ; when inserted 
or omitted, 51 seq. 

Daghesh implied (forma daghessan- 
da), 60. 

Dative Case, 216, comp. 214. 

Diminutives, formation of, 156. 

Diphthongs, 22, 30; how avoided, 
58 seq. 

Doubling of Letters, 48; designates 
intensity, 103. 

Dual, 159 seq.; of numerals, 185; 
syntax of, 211. 


312 


E-sound, 32. 

Ellipsis, of the relative pronoun, 226 ; 
of it, he, 223; other ellipses, true 
and false, 216, 218, 220, 226, 280; 
of conjunctions, 281. 

Epicoenes, i. e. nouns of common 
gender, 198. 

Exchange of Consonants, 46. 


Feeble letters, Vav and Yodh, 57. 

Feminines, endings of, 147; vowel- 
changes of, 169; in the const. 
state, 161; plural forms, 167 seq. ; 
other designations of, 198 seq. ; use 
of, for abstracts and collectives, 199; 
fem. form of the Inf., 91, 121, 128. 

Forms mized, 145. 

Future, see Imperfect. 


Gaya (accent), 44. 

Genitive, mode of expressing it, 160 
seq.; use of the same, 213 seq. 

Gentilicia or national names, 156; 
require the article, 207. 

Gender, as to subject and predicate, 
258 seq. 

Geographical names, 199, 200, 204; 
used in the Gen., 218. 

Gerund, 92, 241, 243. 

Gutturals, 21 seq.; expel Daghesh, 
50;—in verbs, 117—121. 


Hhateph Qamets, 37;—Seghol, 37; 
—Pattah, 37; the latter shorter than 
Hhateph Seghol, 67. 

Hebrew language, 7 seq.; monuments 
of it, 8 seq.; dialects of it, 11 seq. ; 
copiousness, 12; grammatical trea- 
tises upon it, 13 seq. 

Helping vowels, 68. 

Hiphil, 105. 

Hhireq, long and short, 31, 32. 

Hithpael, 107. 

Hholem, 33. 

Homogeneous vowels, 30, 57 seq. 

Hortative mood, 96, 236. 

Hophal, 106. 


T-sound, 27 seq. 
Imperative, 92; shortened and pro- 


INDEX. 


longed, 96; with suffixes, 116; syn- 
tax of, 239; substitutes for it, 232, 
235, 243. 

Imperfect, name, 93. n.; form and 
flexion, 93 seq.; shortened and 
prolonged, 96; with Vav consec., 
97 seq., 234 seq.; with suffix, 116; 
syntax of, 233 seq.; expressed by 
other modes, 2438. 

Impersonal construction, 249. 

Indefinite subject to a verb, viz. one, 
some one, etc., 249. 

Indo-Germanic languages, 3.n., 73 
seq., 87, 89, 101. n., 103. n., 183, 
Rem. 

Infinitive, 91 seq.; with suff, 116; 
Inf. abs., 240 seq. ;— const., 243; 
with >, 253 ; historical, 241. 

Instrument, with 2, and in the Aece., 
251, 269. 

Interjections, 194, 282. 


Jussive, 95 seq., 236. 


Kal, form and meaning, 88. 
Kethibh, 45. 


Letters, liquid, 24; quiescent, 29, 55 ; 
incompatible, 74, n. 


Maqgeph, 43 seq. 
Mappigq, 40. 

Matres lectionis, 30, n. 
Methegh, 35, 43, 69. 
Milel and Milra, 41, 
Modes, 86, 228, 


Negation, modes of, 267 seq. 

Neuter gender, wanting in Hebrew, 
146, 199. 

Niphal, 100. 

Nouns, derivation and kinds, 145— 
156; with suffixes, 164 seq.; de- 
clension of, 167 seq.; syntax of, 
196 seq. 

Nouns proper, when with the article, 
205; with a Gen. following, 209; 
nouns of unity, 200 seq. 

Number, in connection with subject 
and predicate, 260 seq. 


- 


* 


Numerals, 182, 219. 

Numeral signs, 18. 

Nun, assimilates, 47; is demonstra- 
tive or epenthetic, 113. 


O-sound, 33 seq. 
Onomatopoetica, 3, 4, 72 seq. 
Optative, 234, 236, 248. 


Participial nouns, 150 seq. 


INDEX. 


315. 


as suff. of verbs and nouns, 222 ;— 
suff. of adverbs, 188; suff. to pre- 
positions, 191 ;—+reflexive, how ex- 
pressed, 227, 

Prosthesis, 48. 

Pual, 104. 

Punic, see Phenician. 


Qamets, 31, 34; distinguished from 
Qamets Hhatuph, 34 seq., 44. 


Participle, 99 seq. ; with suffixes, 116; | Qeri, 45. 
syntax of, 246 seq.; going over in-| Qibbuts, 33. 


to a finite verb, 247. 

Passives, construction of, 256 seq. 

Patronymics, 156. 

Pattah, 31; specially accompanying 
Gutturals, 53; Pattah furtive, 29, 
53, 120;—in pause for Tsere or 
Seghol, 68, 100. n. 2;—in Piel for 
Tsere, 104. n. 1. 

Pause, 70. 

Perfect, 84, 88; with Vav consec., 97; 
with suffixes, 113; syntax of, 229. 

Phenician and Punic, 8, 25. n.; 86. n.; 
48. n.; 82. n.;—alphabet, 5. . 

Piel, 102 seq. 

Pleonasm, of the proivoun, 223; of 
particles, 276; of negations, 269. 
Plural, ending of, 157 seq. ;—of pre- 
positions, 193; use of the plural, 

200. 

Pluralis excellentiae, 204; its con- 
struction, 211, 260. 

Pluperfect, 229 ;—of the subjunctive, 
231. 

Poetic language, 9, 10, 109; —suf- 
fixes, 288, 289. 

Potential mode, 2:35. 

Praeterite, see Perfect. 

Predicate, without the article, 208; 
its connection with the subject, 258. 

Prefixes, 191; with suff. also, 191, 192. 

Prepositions, 189; syntax of, 272. 

Present tense, how expressed, 229, | 
234, 238, 246; Pres. Subj., 232. 


Pronotins, 77 seq.;—personal, 77 seq.; 


—suffix, 79 seq.;— demonstrative, 
80;—relative, 82;—interrogative 





and indefinite, 83;—suff. to the 
verb, 111 seq. ;—syntax of, 221 seq. 5 
40 


Quadriliteral and 
words, 74 seq., 108. 
Quiescents, see Letters, 


Quinqueliteral 


Raphe, 28, 40. 

Relation of irregular verbs to each 
other, 143 seq. 

Relative Conjunctions, 278, 

Relative Pronoun, 82; syntax of, 225. 

Repetition of words, 202, 203. 

Roots, 71. 


Sheva, meaning of, 36. n.; simple 
and composite, 36—38; vocal or 
silent, 36; simple, under Guttu- 
rals, 54; under guttural verbs, 118, 
119, 121; Sheva vocal a half-vow- 
el, 62. 

Scriptio plena et defectiva, 8, 29, 30. 

Seghol, 32, 67 ; before Gutturals, 53; 
before Gutturals with Qamets, 66, 
67. 

Segholate forms of nouns, 173 seq. ; 
—of verbs, 140 seq. 

Semitic languages, 1 seq.; relation 
to each other, 5 seq. 

Servile letters, 72; = Hemantives, 148. 

Sbureq, 33. 

Sibilants, 22;—transposition of, 108. 

Silluq, 41. 

Square character, 17. 

State absolute, when for construct, 
213. 

State construct, endings of the same, 
161; vowel changes, 161, and also 
in the paradigms, § 90—92; use of 
the same, 213 seq., 215 seq.; when 
it obtains the article, 209, 


314 


HEBREW INDEX, 


Stems, different from Roots, 71. Verbs, stems, classes, conjugations, 
Stem-consonants, 71. | 86 seq.; regular and irregular, 87; 
Suffixes, see Pronouns; syntax of middle .4, E, O, 88; with suffix, 

them, 221 seq.; light and grave,| 111; contract, 121; feeble verbs, . 

168 seq. ; 170, n. 126 seq. ;—doubly irregular, 143; 
chiiHlative: 218. defective, 144; syntax of, 228; 
Syllables, theory of, 60 seq. with prepositions, 52 ; ; connection 
Syriasm in punctuation, 56, 58. of two verbs in one idea, 254; imi- 
tative of sounds, see Onomato- 
poetica ;—impersonal, 249, 
-Vocalization of the text, 25 seq. 
Vocative, with the article, 207. 
Vowel-letters, 25. See also Feeble 
Letters. 

Vowels, 24 seq. 

Vav consecutive, 97 seq.; rise of the Vowel-signs or points, 24 seq. 

same, 98; with the Perf., 99; with | 

the Imperf., 98 ;—copulative before | Words, arrangement of, 259 seq. 


Tenses, their use, 228 seq.; relative 

tenses, 231. | 
Tone or accent, 69; signs of tone, 41. 
Transposition, of letters, 46, 108. 
Tsere, 32. 





verbs, 99; punctuation of, 194; | 


meaning of, 277. 


HEBREW 


®, as a Consonant and Guttural, 21; 
of the Shevas it prefers (—), 54; 
as a Quiescent, how treated, 55 
seq.; & of extension, 56, 78. n. 6, 
90. n. 4, 95. n. 4;—exchanged for 
4,7, 5, 55 seq.; is dropped, 56. 

ik, conjunct’, 280. 

nbin , 266, c. . 

“xX, interrog., 270. 

VAN, PR, is not, 268. 

by, 268. 

Sy 5 275, 

DN, distinct from 41>, 248, 279, 280. 

“UN, as pronoun relative, 82, 225; 
as relative conjunction, 278 ; > “WR, 
214. 

ms, sign of the Acc., 191, 
prep. with, 191. 

2, as prep., 189 seq.; use of, 272. 

“vina, where, when, 226. 

m, with Mappiq, 40, 56, 137; 
feeble letter, 56. 


216; as 


as a 





INDEX. 


1, article, see above under .4rlicle. 

3, interrogative, 188, 270. 

i-, Hortative and Imper. 
96, 97; noun-ending, 162. 

main, 8, 78; distinet from mt, 224. 

mrt to ie its anomalies, 140, V4): 
“with the Part., 247; with > before 
the Inf., 244. 

4,asa vowel lenel 25, 30, 37. 

“, copulative and consecutive, 

Perfect above. 

4, followed by Dagh. forte, consecu- 
tive, see Imperf. above. 

INT}, 232. 

I, 238. 

b ie a vowel-letter, 25, 31, 57. 

nim, 190. n. 

mibopn, fem. form, 95. n. 3. 

>, al by suffix, 192; meaning, 272, 
276. 

"D, conj., 278. 

"D >zi"D , 280. 


ending, 


see 


* HEBREW INDEX. 


>>, with a negation, 268; with a 
noun which has, or has not, the 
article, 209. 

, punctuation, 189 seq.; with suffix- 
pronouns, 191; meanings, 276; 
sign of the Dative, 216; of the 
Gen., 214; with the Passive, be- 
fore the efficient cause, 257 ; > auc- 
toris, 214. ; 

Xd, 267; before verbs, 235. 

1>, etymology and use, 280, 248. 
42, always plural, 192. 


2, sign of participle, 103 ; formative | 


letter in nouns, 156. 
"2 for M2, 83. 
2 for 72; which see. 


C3 
— 
Cn 


| 72, "9, 83. 

\72—, poetical appendage to prefixes, 
191 seq. 

WAT ws, 248. 

/ \2, prep., punctuation, 189; with 

suff., 192; meaning, 275; before 

the comparative, 218. 

5, see Nun above. 

9, sound of, 21. 

(52, prep., 274. 

l*mws, 184. n. 

“s, as Guttural, 54; doubling of the 
same, 54. 

wv, praefix, 82. 

nm, fem. ending, 147, 161. 





ian 
4 ~ 
vy (Gq 
| 
Zz i 
r! RAY T.. 
4 ’ 
J 




















y 
f | f ; Es ele ta 
a : ; : ASE | ve res ates . vee 
; wile i, vi ise bes apieretet wy nf Vie .) ? Baie" * oh 
aaclapaaalgay baie 88 * ace eA 9 wh NO ac 
bs ite “2 om 7 Prac oll ristowe eo oe ~~ 
n 
Path in ere Wo. is 
vi i’ shih : ; ay e NS . 
sane 7 ove Ler. it. ‘ r* an ‘Lape 
es) 4 ah yu Yi ’ \ ‘ K se a 
< ‘ ! 
Git i 4 ha by 
’ < ‘? ‘ . Pir if s : ; Mt 
PBARY "00h * NT pe lane ey antl jt sy py ie ‘ r 
. . hi oh \ vs 2 
\\ edad a oy hl ae 4 Pin ; “A 
DO, ea ee el NA Leinstay’ Te eu: hd ny, 
marys et ‘ "eae gad salt bride oy ube sf i . 
. i “ay uit? “ye ‘a rN venir hae 3 
LP ates ¥é aon ORES 
giana arte ney oi 
my Vinee ahha Laat eae aoe! mwa att 
oe wht Aetna aaa ah ‘iasammowiy ro ‘Yr ape 
7 ‘teva i ay? a4? Yo fas pedi aa of eee ia 
GRP TE PSE RAE INP Eas 
5 i aro? F ce kp re a ; bei 
ty cum alg TS AAV CY OD A) 
Sie, ro) ay? gireant tus). gras | bead aie. 
l i eaymierwa ste Bs camngostoady chiaeronn) ! 
emer wee i ers eg ngeoe 
<Miy bs Oa me 
Mw = 





APPENDIX 


DESIGNED TO SUPPLY THE PLACE OF A 


& 


HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY. 


§ 1. 
Introductory Remarks. 

Tue proper object of a Chrestomathy in any language, is to facilitate the 
progress of him who undertakes to study that language. In its appropriate 
sphere, it is distinct from a Commentary, where ezegesis is the predomi- 
nant element of the work. So far as a correct explanation of idiomatic ex- 
pressions and of grammatical difficulties serves to cast light on interpreta- 
tion, a good Chrestomathy partakes indeed of the exegetical element; for 
that a correct knowledge of idioms, of grammatical forms, and of the syn- 
tax of any language, is not only indispensable, but of the very highest im- 
portance to the interpreter, there can be no doubt. But it is one thing for 
a book to aim simply or mainly at a development of forms and idioms, and 
another to pursue interpretation on a broad scale, combining with the pur- 
suit all that rhetoric, history, geography, chronology, and archaeology in 
general, may afford, so as to help the commentator to a thorough interpre- 
tation. 

Those whose business it has been to teach Janguages, know well that all 
attempts at thorough exegesis are in vain, until the student shall have made 
progress enough in the knowledge of words, their forms, and their syntax, 
to understand and duly appreciate the remarks of an interpreter. To be- 
gin the study of Hebrew with a formal Commentary, such as the advanced 
student needs, would be preposterous; for it would only serve to divide 
and distract the attention of the learner, at a period when all his efforts 
should be directed to the simple object of reading and understanding the 
language as such. 


318 § 1. InrTRODUCTORY REMARKS. [apr. 


A proper Chrestomathy is designed for purposes simply linguistic and 
philological. In other words, it should serve the purpose of making the 
student acquainted with the forms, the declensions, the cases, the tenses, 
the moods, and (summarily to speak) with all the variations of words, ex- 
pressive of relation to each other, or adapted to designate time and manner. 
It should lead the student on in the right way to obtain the knowledge in 
question, up to such a point that it may be presumed he is able to make 
his own way without the aid of another. At this point the office of a Com- 
mentary properly begins. Before this, it is of little or no avail; unless, in- 
deed, the interpreter chooses to be more chrestomathic than exegetical. 

If these views are correct, they will serve to justify the course pursued 
in the following pages. My aim is to prepare the student to use a Com- 
mentary to advantage, by leading him on to a right knowledge of the forms 
and syntax of the Hebrew language. At the outset, the acquisition of such 
a knowledge demands the undivided attention of the learner. There are 
only two ways of acquiring a knowledge of any language, viz., first, the 
method in which children acquire a knowledge of their vernacular tongue ; 
and secondly, the method of studying by the aid of grammars and lexicons. 
The first is out of question for us, in respect to the Hebrew; the second 
must, so far as possible, stand in the place of it. A grammar which rightly 
explains all the forms and syntax of words, and a lexicon which properly 
explains all the meanings of them, form an apparatus in itself complete for 
the acquisition of any language. If the grammar and Jexicon of Gesenius 
are not perfect, (as doubtless they are not), they still approach so near to 
that standard, that we may rest satisfied that by their aid we may place 
ourselves substantially in the situation of those who had a vernacular ac- 
quaintance with the Hebrew. 

It is usual, when a Chrestomathy forms a separate volume, to print the 
ext of the language to be studied. In many cases this may be expedient. 
But as there is only one volume of the ancient Hebrew now extant, and as 
all who intend to study Hebrew in earnest must possess themselves of that 
volume, it seems superfluous to reprint the Hebrew text in another book, 
and thus to add to the expense of the Chrestomathy, without making any 
real addition to the apparatus of the student. On this account, and also to 
lessen as much as may be the bulk of this manual, [ have thought it expe- 
dient to omit a reprint of the Hebrew text, and merely to insert the notes 
which are designed to guide the student in the initiatory stages of bis study. 

It is of no consequence what portion of the O, Test. is selected as the 
basis of a Chrestomathy, excepting that the higher flights of poetry, and the 
more difficult parts of prose should be avoided. Nothing can be more un- 
suitable, than to make up a Chrestomathy merely of morsels rhetorically 
exquisite, selected here and there, and designed more for aesthetical im- 


APP.] § 2. METHOD OF STUDY. 319 


pression, than for aid in the acquisition of linguistic knowledge. The most 
intelligible parts of the Bible are plainly the best for beginners; and con- 
tinuous pieces which will interest the reader by their contents, are alto- 
gether preferable to mere scraps or sentences chosen here and there, and 
introduced like a string of apothegms or unconnected sayings. So much 
of the O. 'Test., moreover, is poetry, that a complete Chrestomathy ought 
to comprise an introduction to this species of writing, as well as to prose. 

The help which I shall endeavour here to render the learner, is such as 
I should proffer him, for the most part, if engaged in teaching him orally, 
until I should deem him fitted to commence the business of exegesis, on a 
more enlarged scale. If I can satisfy the beginner, that he had better pur- 
sue the method of study which I shall peint out in the sequel; and if he 
will actually, and patiently, and perseveringly follow it; I should not then 
hesitate to assure him, that, in a moderate period of time, he may acquire 
both an agreeable and a useful knowledge of the Hebrew, 


§ 2. 
Suggestions respecting the Method of Studying Hebrew. 


During the long course of years in which I have been employed more or 
less in teaching this language, I have made trial of different modes of 
teaching, with the intention of satisfying my own mind as to the question: 
Which is the preferable one? The resuit I will give, as briefly as I can, 
so that the Jearner may avail himself of it, if be should think proper to do 
89. 

The knowledge of any language is mainly comprised in three particulars, 
viz. a knowledge of the forms of words, of their various meanings, and of 
the method in which they are connected together in making out clauses 
and sentences. Without this knowledge, not a single sentence of the Heb. 
Scriptures, (or indeed of any other book), can be obtained in such a man- 
ner as to be relied on. He who does not know, for example, in what re- 
lation the words of the first chapter and verse of the book of Genesis stand 
to each otber, or in what way we can determine which noun is subject, and 
which are objects of the sentence, cannot determine grammatically, which 
word in the verse is Nom. to the verb, or (in other words) he cannot de- 
termine whether the assertion of the writer means, that God made the hea- 
vens and the earth, or that the heavens and the earth made God, or that the be- 
ginning made both God and them. If any one should say, that the expres- 
sion, the heavens and the earth made God, is an absurdity, and therefore evi- 
dently not the meaning of the writer, it would be easy to reply, that what 
many now deem to be the perfection of philosophy maintains, that ‘if the 
world were not world, God would not be God,’ so that the heavens and the 


320 §2. METHOD OF STUDY. app. 


earth are the causes of the real existence of God, or at Jeast they are the 
ground or reason why God becomes a conscious being, to say the least; 
and a little allowance of latitude in expression to a very ancient writer, 
might serve to diminish the force of any alleged absurdity. As to the ex- 
pression, that the beginning made both God and the heavens and earth, one 
might resort to Parsism and other oriental theosophy, for pretty well-suited 
parallels with such an assertion; and he might also say, that it needs but a 
generous allowance of liberty to the writer, in order to make his expression 
tolerable, on a like ground with that of Parsism and Bhuddism. 

Suppose then there is no certain guide furnished by the usages of the 
Hebrew, in regard to the disposition or arrangement of words in a sen- 
tence, how could the reader know with entire certainty, whether the mean- 
ing of Gen 1: ] is as our English version has given it? He could not; but 
as the matter now is, a knowledge of Hebrew Grammar, in the wide ex- 
tent of this term, renders any sane doubt as to the meaning impossible. 

So is it with nearly every verse of the Bible. A variety of arrangement 
as to subject, predicate, and object, is indeed admitted in the Hebrew ; but 
to know this, and to know when, and how, and why, it takes place, is one of 
the things which Grammar teaches. To Grammar must the ultimate ap- 
peal be made in all disputed cases, the probable or possible significations 
of words in themselves being once known. Higher criticism and exegesis 
deduce their most important material from an accurate and extensive know- 
ledge of grammar. Certain it is, that no one has a right to feel assured of 
the true meaning of any passage, so long as its grammatical construction is 
doubtful. The relations of words, and the order of their sequency, are ab- 
solutely essential to an elementary knowledge of any language. 

Put the case, then, that a student of Hebrew has acquired a thorough 
knowledge of the forms of Hebrew words, and of syntax, (no matter whether 
this is done by the reading of 50, or only of 10 chapters), that student is 
prepared for solid and rapid progress in the Hebrew, and has little else to 
do than merely to extend his knowledge of the meaning of words; which 
is rapidly acquired by constant reading. The toil and difficulty of his un- 
dertaking is past, and the rest of his way is only a journey of pleasure and 
profit. Thousands of erroneous and whimsical interpretations an accurate 
knowledge of grammar will enable him instantaneously to detect. The 
same knowledge will point out to him the true way in which he must pro- 
ceed, in order to arrive at any desired point of exegesis. In a word, an 
accurate and extensive knowledge of Grammar, in the wide extent of the 
word, is to be valued more than all the systems of Hermeneutics that are 
extant. Not but that these are useful and important, in their place; but 
these all have their basis in the principles of grammar, and are worthless 
unless they are built upon this basis. 


APP. | §2. METHOD OF sTUDY. 321 


Such are my views of this subject; and on these the following advice is 
founded. My conviction of their correctness has been increasing, ever 
since my mind was awakened to an earnest contemplation of them; and I 
have endeavoured to make practical experiment of them, in respect to my- 
self and my pupils. 

I suppose the person, whom I address, to be strictly a beginner, in the 
present case ; and to such an one J would beg leave to make the following 
suggestions. 

Tae ALPHABET, AND THE Vowe L-siens. To become familiar with 
these, begin with a single letter ; inspect the form carefully; write it down 
with your pen some twenty or thirty times, at least, comparing each repe- 
tition with the letter as printed, in order to see whether you have shaped 
it to a good degree of exactness. Every time you write any letter, give the 
sound aloud, and also call the name. What is impressed on the eye and ear 
both, is more likely to be remembered. 

When the consonant alphabet is finished, and the forms, and powers, and 
divisions, of the letters are familiar in some good degree, then go through 
with the vowEL-siens in the same way, taking care, when you write the 
figures of them, to sound them, to call each by name, and to classify it. 

You are now prepared to commence the exercise of reading. Specially 
concerned with this is § 26 in the Grammar, which developes all the me- 
thods of syllabication. The principles on which every distinct syllable is 
grounded, and how the indistinct ones are formed, may be found there; 
and the beginner should join with the exercise of reading, the application 
of the principles which guide him. In this way, joining this with the care- 
ful study of the powers and classifications of the vowels, and specially as 
connected with the Quiescents, he may come, in a short time, to read with 
a good degree of facility, provided he constantly practices reading aloud, 
either alone, or (what is better) in company with another. The hesitating, 
drawling, blundering manner, in which many (not to say most) students 
read Hebrew, is an incongruity in a scholar, and never fails to make the 
impression, that he does not understand what he cannot read with more 
facility. My advice to every student is, to give no occasion for such an im- 
pression, by showing that he does not actually and readily know and dis- 
tinguish the different letters and vowels. Writing them and reading them 
aloud, often, carefully, added to seeking out all the principles 9f sound and 
syllabication in the Grammar, until they become altogether familiar, are the 
sure and only means of speedily performing, in a ready way, the task of 
reading Hebrew with facility. 

With this reading, after some progress made in it, let the student join the 
practice of distinguishing every instance of DaguesH LENE and FORTE in 
the spirates, as described in § 21. A very little time will enable him to 

41 


322 § 2, METHOD OF STUDY. [ APP. 


understand and apply the principles there developed; and almost every 
sentence in Hebrew requires one to understand them. 

As a specimen of the manner in which I would have him proceed, in 
learning to read with facility, I will here subjoin a few verses, with the 
English representatives of the Hebrew sounds, as exhibited in the second 
column on the left of the Alphabet, p. 18 of the Grammar. ° 

(1) Be* ré-shith bara 8l6-bim Néth hash-sha-ma-yim v°éth ha-xa-réts. 

Be—p. 36. a; ré, 23,4. 1; shith, 9, 4.—ba, 9, 1. 2; ra, 23, 1.—x4, 10, 2; 1, 
26, 2; him, 9, 4.—éth, 9, 7.—hash, 26, 5 (as to the short vowel), 20, 1 (as to 
Dagh. forte); sha, 9, 1.2; ma, comp. 86b, n. 2 and 9, 2; yim, 26, 5.—v°, 
102, 2. a; éth, 9,7; ha, 26, 3; Na, 23, 2; réts, 26, 5. 

(2) Veha-a-réts ha-y°tha thd-hd va-bhd-hd vehho-shékh 2al pené thehdm 
veruthh (22, 2. b) 8%l6-him m°ra-hhe-phéth 2al p°né bham-ma-yim. (3) Vay- 
vo-mér 8ld-him ychi Ndr va-yehi Ndr. (4) Vay-yar 8‘lo-him xéth ba-Nor 
ki tobh vay-yabh-dél x¢lé-him bén ha-Ndr G-bhén ha-hho-shekh. (5) Vay- 
yiq-ra 8°16 him 1a-Ndér yOm vela-hho-shékh qa-ra la-y°la va-y°hi Se-rébh va- 
ychi bho-qér yOm Ne-hbadh. (6) Vay-yé-mér N°ld-him y*hi ra-qi*> (22, 2. 
b) b°thékh him-ma-yim vi-hi mabh-dil bén ma-yim 14-ma-yim. 

This may suffice to guide the beginner, and to introduce him to syllabi- 
cation. If he learns to distinguish all the different vowels as to sound and 
quantity, and when to make open syllables, and when closed ones, (which 
he will easily do, if he makes himself thoroughly acquainted with § 10 and 
§ 26), the difficulties of reading will then be removed, and he will need 
nothing more than frequent practice, to enable him to read with fluency. 
The children of Jews usually learn to read Hebrew with ease, even with- 
out understanding anything of its meaning. _ 

The next labour is, to make such an acquaintance with Hebrew forms, 
viz. those of pronouns, verbs, and nouns, as will enable him to begin the 
work of translating. I mention only these three parts of speech here, be- 
cause the others, having almost no changes, will give him little or no trou- 
ble. 

Let him make no attempt, at this stage of study, to master all the excep- 
tions and irregularities that occur, in these parts of speech. It is enough 
that he so study the essential parts of the Grammar, in respect to them, that 





* The small e above the line represents vocal and simple Sheva; a, e, o (Italic), 
small and above the line, represent the three composite Shevas, (on p. 87), which 
are always vocal. The 4, é,i, 6, d, represent the respective vowels on p. 27 seq., 
when they have a quiescent letter combined with them; 4, é, etc., the same vowels 
without such Quiescent; a, e, ete., represent the short vowels in an open syllable; &, 
&, ete., the same in a closed one. 

t In all cases, the first number denotes the section (§) in the Grammar, unless p. 
(= page) is prefixed. The numbers or letters that follow, are the large-number di- 
visions of the (§), and then the subdivisions under it. 


AppP.| §2. METHOD OF sTUDY. 323 


he may know where to go, to find the solution of any difficulty that may 
occur. The normal state of the language is what he should first aim at. 
Irregularities are best learned, as they occur in the course of reading. 

In this part of study, the learner will be greatly assisted by exercises on 
the original pronouns, on the verbs, and on the different classes of nouns. 
These may be so conducted, by the aid of a skilful teacher, that when the 
beginner comes to the reading of the Heb. Scriptures, the forms that occur 
will already be familiar to him, and the most he has to do, will be to ac- 
quire a knowledge of the meaning of words. Where other difficulties are 
removed, a rapid advance may be expected in this. <A book of exercises, 
adapted to give the learner a thorough knowledge of all the different pune- 
tuation of verbs in different tenses, conjugations, and persons; and so of 
nouns masc. and fem., sing. and plur., in all their declensions, is a desidera- 
tum for the successful study of Hebrew in our country, highly important 
and really indispensable.* 











* It gives me great pleasure to state, that Prof. Hackett, of the Newton Theol. 
Seminary, is about to publish such a book. He has tried the experiment of teaching 
in this way, viz. by the aid of grammatical exercises, and has come fully, (and, I 
doubt not, justly) to the conclusion, that, in the same length of time, much greater 
advance is made in the knowledge of Hebrew, than in the old method of studying. 
Germany has already some half score of exercise books for the Hebrew. Gesenius 
sanctioned and commended this method; and one of his pupils, Brickner, has pub- 
lished an excellent book for this purpose. From this, from Maurer’s book of the 
like nature, and from some others, and also from his own experience, Prof. Hackett 
designs to publish a small volume, which will aid all the teachers and learners of 
Hebrew in our country, in the performance of their task. The plan, faithfully car- 
ried through, cannot fail to give an impetus and an advance to Hebrew studies, which 
are greatly needed. 

The difference between this method of teaching and learning and the common one, 
is important. The common one makes the student passive, or, at most, active in 
mere memoriter efforts—a dull, dry, uninteresting task, and in general very poorly 
performed. But when the learner is brought to use his pen and his mind, in making 
out and impressing on his memory all the leading Hebrew forms of nouns and verbs, 
his interest is at once excited in the prosecution of his work. I. g. he is required to 
give all the different vowel points of the consonants bop, the radix of the regular 
paradigmal verb. This obliges him carefully to search out the whole paradigm, and 
to write down dup, DEP, DUP, Sup, >wp, bup, dap. Then other forms fol- 
low, e. g. rbup, bop. : up, etc., all to be pointed in all their varieties. Of 
nouns, the forms singular and plural, construct, suffix, ete., are required; and thus all 
the variations of which they are susceptible, are soon mastered. Of the article, all 
the different modes of punctuation are attained and made familiar, by presenting 
nouns before which they must be employed, and requiring the learner to supply the 
article and its vowel before all. The suffix-pronouns may be left to the progress of 
reading, and be gradually attained by taking them one by one at a time, and requir- 
ing the original and the suffix-forms, and attaching the latter to some verb or noun. 
Tn short, all the principles of forms, declensions, etc., may be impressed on the learner’s 
mind, by making due arrangement for him to designate them with his pen. And so 


324 §2. METHOD OF STUDY. _ [APP. 


Along with exercises on the verbs, should be joined not only the various 
species of verbs, such as those in the Paradigms, (which are chosen with a 
view to their various modes of vocalization, and of treating the consonants 
which belong to the stems), but also verbs which have, for the first, second, 
or third letter, an Aspirate ; or verbs with the first two and last two letters 
Aspirates ; and also verbs with all three of the stem-letters of this class, 
like 73>. All that pertains to Dagh. forte and lene, may be shortly learned 
in this way. 

The Accents, as distinguished from the vowels, are easily learned. 
Sooner or later, the whole train should be made familiar. But the student 
may set out with merely a particular knowledge of the pause-accents ; see 
15. 3, A. I. 1—3, and also IL. ib. These are not only quite important as 
marking the otiyou in poetry, but very often they have an effect in changing 
the vowels connected with them; see §29. Let not the learner neglect the 
aid which they will often afford him, both as to special forms of words, 
and as to their connection with, and relation to, other words. Although 
they are not authoritative, yet they designate the grammatical, and often 
the exegetical, views of ancient Hebraists, who were highly skilled in a 
knowledge of the Heb. language. 

We will now suppose the learner to have gone through with a compe- 
tent portion of these preparatory exercises, and to have such an acquaint- 
ance with the forms of Heb. words, as prepares him to distinguish the va- 
rious classes of them from each other, and to ascertain their true relation to 
each other, and thus make out the order of a sentence. He may now com- 
mence the study of the Heb. Scriptures, with the prospect of easy advance. 
The language itself is much less difficult in its forms, and cases, and modes, 
and tenses, than either Greek or Latin. The whole Janguage that remains, 
is embodied in one book; and it would seem, that at least so much might 
be read for the sake of gaining a knowledge that will be highly profitable. 


§ 3. 
Notes designed to lead to a complete grammatical analysis. 


If the learner pursues the course which I have marked out for him, the 
need of a prolonged Chrestomathy will not be felt. The design of the fol- 
lowing pages is merely fo point out the way in which the study of Hebrew 
should be conducted, if it be intended to answer any valuable critical or phi- 





every rule of syntax might also be illustrated and made familiar; but the ordinary 
limits of such a book will naturally permit only the most important or difficult ones 
to be exhibited. 

I will only add, that, in my view, the public have good ground for the expectation, 
that Prof. Hackett will execute the work in question in a manner botli useful and 
satisfactory. 


APP.| ~ §3. NoTEs. 320 


lological purposes. Whatever pertains to orthography, forms of words, or 
the relative position of them, i. e. syntax, should be aimed at, from the first 
outset of study. Nearly all students of the Hebrew come to the acquisition 
of this language, after they have studied the Latin and Greek languages ; and 
the general principles of universal grainmar may be regarded as already in 
their possession. Of course there is no need of dwelling on things com- 
mon to all languages; at most, no farther than to show the agreement of 
the Hebrew in respect to these, with other languages that the learner has 
studied. 

On each of these objects of attention, that I have named, I would make 
some brief remarks, nyerely to satisfy the mind of the learner, that they 
should be regarded as objects with which he must make a minute and ac- 
curate acquaintance, whatever may be the efforts necessary to accomplish 
this end. 

I. Tur Orrnoerarny. Under this, I include the proper adjustment of 
all the consonants, vowels, and diacritical signs, such as Daghesh, Mappiq, 
and the like. In Hebrew there is, in some cases, a great variety in the 
modes of orthography, specially where the Quiescents are concerned; as the 
reader may see in § 8, 4seq., where this is illustrated. Sometimes this be- 
comes a matter of high importance, even in order to settle the question, to 
what class of words the particular word under consideration belongs. 
Whenever the sense requires, the absence of a 1, ", &, and occasionally 
even 4, may be supposed, and the word regarded as virtually implying 
them, if the context and the doctrine of Heb. forms make this implication 
congruous. Then, in regard to the varying punctuation of such particles as 
4, 2, 2, >, (pp. 189. 194), the learner must often hesitate, and even stumble, 
as to his estimate of the proper nature of the words, unless he is familiar with 
the appropriate orthography. With regard to Daghesh forte and lene he 
must surely do this, unless he learns not only to distinguish Dagh. forte as 
compensative, characteristic, euphonic, and conjunctive, (§ 20), but specially to 
distinguish Dagh. lene from all others, and to know of course where and 
when it must be employed, and where it cannot be. ‘True orthography de- 
mands absolutely a knowledge of all this. Whatever then occurs in the 
text to be read, which is of an orthographic nature, (in the general sense 
above defined), should be the object of attention in such notes as are de- 
signed to guide the learner to a knowledge of elementary matters. 

Il. Forms embrace all that is called declension in nouns and verbs; and not 
even a step can be taken, without some knowledge of these. What is nor- 
mal, I now suppose the student to have some knowledge of. All departures 
from the common rule, must of course be pointed out and explained. But 
instead of repeating the explanation at length, in the following notes, and 
thus virtually writing the Grammar over again, I shall refer the learner to 


326 § 3. NOTEs. _ [app. 


the place in the Grammar where due explanation is made. It will be far 
more useful to him, to look this out in the Grammar, and study it there for 
himself, than it would to have everything explained at length, and all laid 
before him, and thus have all investigation superseded. The same is true 
in regard to the treatment of all the other objects, to which the attention of 
the student is invited. 

. IIL Sywrax of course is fundamental in all languages. But there are prin- 
ciples in it common to them all; and it is wholly unnecessary, in a Chres- 
tomathy like the present, to dwell on these common and well known prin- 
ciples. It is enough merely to point out the consentaneous practice of the 
Hebrews, in the construction of their sentences. What is peculiar to this 
language; what differs from the general usage of other languages; what 
would puzzle the student to unravel, in his state of imperfect knowledge ;— 
all this must be explained by reference to the syntax in the Grammar, 
where le will see the subject developed in its proper relations, To repeat 
in the Notes what is there said, would be more than superfluous. 

The student has now before him the three-fold object to be attained, by 
aid of the Notes which follow. I can only say to him, (which I do say 
without the least doubt or hesitation): Make HASTE sLowLy. Every step 
that you take in attaining a knowledge of either the orthography, the forms 
of words, or the syntax, is so much clear gain toward a radical and funda- 
mental knowledge of the Heb. language. Everything which leads you to 
this, at the outset, is preparing to make you advance rapidly in the sequel. 
Your whole gain, within a given time, at least if this comprise several 
months of study, will be much greater than could be made by the mere 
study of the meanings of words, in the use of lexicon only. 

It is indeed indispensable, of course, that these meanings should be learn- 
ed. But the common method of studying languages, i. e. a mere slight and 
temporary attention to grammar, and after that a constant reading on, 
merely to gain a knowledge of the meaning of words from the lexicon, 
will certainly disappoint the hopes of the student. Any body can learn to 
translate, where the meaning of the words is plain, and the syntax in requi- 
sition is merely what belongs to universal grammar. It is idioms, pecu- 
liarities, departures from usage elsewhere, or even from what is normal 
and common in Hebrew, that truly bring the student to the trial. His 
lexicon-knowledge fails him here. The very passages where the power of 
grammatical criticism is needed, and must be applied in order to elicit any 
tolerable sense, are those very passages in which the mere lericon-learner 
will see that he is utterly non-plus’d. In a word, all the proper avails of 
philology and criticism, in cases of difficulty, will be beyond his power ; 
for as to passages which are so plain that ‘he who runneth may read,’ criti- 
cism in a higher sense is needless. And when he does need it, then he finds 
himself incapable of employing it. 


APP. | §3..NoTES ON GEN. 1: 1. 327 


If I know anything of philological study, I know this for certainty, viz. 
that every learner who calculates on nothing more than to attain to the 
lexicon-meaning of words, must find himself entirely incapacitated, when a 
serious difficulty occurs, not only to solve it himself, but even to judge 
whether others have properly and satisfactorily solved it; for how can he 
judge of the appositeness of arguments, the value of which he cannot esti- 
mate? Fully believing this, I invite his attention to a different method of 
study, one which shall put it in his power to judge and decide respecting 
the orthography, the forms. of words, and the syntax, of the Hebrew, as well 
as in regard to the meaning of particular words. Without the first three of 
these, the latter cannot,“in many cases where the sense of a word is modi- 
fied by position and syntactical relation, be at all truly attained. Let the stu- 
dent then be patient in the labours requisite to take the proper stand of critical 
knowledge ; and let him not feel, as is too often the case, that he is making 
but little progress in the knowledge of Hebrew, because he travels over but 
comparatively little ground. A few chapters radically studied will give 
him more power of progress, than whole books run over with nothing but 
the lexicon in hand. 

With these things premised, in the way of explaining and vindicating 
the course of the following Notes, I proceed to the work before me.* 


Noles on Gen. I. 1. 
(1) mwnna,t Dagh. lene in 3, 21,1; Sheva under it, 100, 1. moa 





* In the editions of my Hebrew Chrestomathy, printed formerly in a separate vol- 
ume with the Hebrew text, Linserted several Hxercises on the verbs and nouns, which 
the student was advised to go through. Then followed a series of short sentences, 
selected here and there from all parts of the Hebrew Scriptures. Both of these I now 
dismiss, inasmuch as the publication of Prof. Hackett’s little book of Practical Exer- 
cises will supersede them, and be far more thorough and useful to the student. 

I have already mentioned, that for Chrestomathic purposes, it matters not where we 
go for text, excepting that the more difficult passages of prose or of poetry are inap- 
posite to the beginner. To read on continuous/y through a connected narration, is in- 
comparably a better way than to read mere apothegmatic sentences, having no con- 
nection, and constantly presenting new words. The student is apt to be disheartened 
by this process, because he finds so many new words to be difficult to remember, 
and seems to get little aid from what he has already done, to assist him in what he 
is doing. The repetition of known words in simple narrations, are little spots of ve- 
getation in the desert which he seems to be traversing, and he is encouraged and ex- 
cited to go on by the influence of these cheering places upon his mind. The repetition 
of many words also fixes them in his memory. Hence I have selected some of the 
most simple, and at the same time most perfect, specimens of a pure Hebrew style, 
from the book of Genesis, as the best adapted for an introduction to the Hebrew. 

+ The notes first in order pertain to the orthography or vocalization, Daghesh, and 
the like; then they go on to the form of the word, and lastly to its grammatical rela- 
tions. 


328 §3. nores on cen. 1: 1, 2. _[app. 


might be written without the &, and is so written in Deut. 11: 12, comp. 
§ 8, 4.—The form is that of a denominative, 85, 2. 6, comp. 83, 16, derived 
from UX1.—Office of 2, 153, 3... Position of the whole word, which is 
used adverbially, 142, 1. d—{x72)* Dagh. lene in 3, 21, 2.—form, 73, 1.— 
position in the sentence, 142, 1. a.—Tense, 124, 1.—(o"n3y), ® guttural and 
vocal, 23, 2; composite Sheva under it, 22, 4. n.2; the Hholem in the plu- 
ral written defectively, i. e. without the 1 which belongs to the sing. 7i>x, 
8, 4.a; for Mappiq in © of the sing. form, see 14, 1; plur. p\—, 86, 1— 
Plur. noun subject of a verb singular, 143, 2. (MX), & vocal, 23, 2.—nx 
sign of the Acc., 115, 2, see n. at the bottom of the page. (D2e), 5 ar- 
ticle, with Dagh, forte after it, 35, also 137.—For the peculiar form of the 
plur. (like the dual), see 86b, 1, n. 2. The now obsolete sing. doubtless 
was originally "2% sha-may. Usage retained the accent on the ultimate of 
the sing., which made the present form (penult accent) of the plur. neces- 
sary. (MN), 1, 102, 2.a. mX as before. (7 NT), 3, 35, 1. YIN instead of 
V2, 29, 4. a; for the Sillug (_), see 15, 3. A. 1. For the Segholate form 
of the word, see 83, No. 11. Dec. VI. 

Note on the accentuation. The pause-accent (—) is here placed on DITOR ; which is 
full proof that some other purpose than that of separating clauses and distinguishing 
the sense, is and may be attached to the aceenis; for how would look in English: 
In the beginning God created ; the heavens and the earth? It is the same in Hebrew, if 
the Athnahh (—) is to be regarded only in the light in which we regard our English 
punctuation. Beyond all reasonable doubt, the Athnahh is here a sign of cantillation, 
that is of a pause in it, or a stress of voice laid on the pause-syllable. This seems, 
moreover, to be the true reason why the pause-accents so often prolong the vowels 
on which they fall; a circumstance that connects merely and only with the cantilla- 
tion, for it makes not the slightest change in the meaning of a word, nor even sub- 
stantially in its relation. The simple truth seems to be, that the cantillation, for the 
most part, is adapted to the sense, and pauses where that does. But where the verse, 
like Gen. 1: 1, has no pause as to sense, one is made, as we see, in the cantillation. 
From all this we draw the important inference, that the accents do not bind us, as to 
our punctuation; that they are sometimes employed, (I mean the distinctive ones), 
where we cannot put even a half-comma; and also that, while we may safely follow 
them in most cases, we are always at liberty to make an English punctuation that is 
best adapted to the sense. 

(2) yan, 1, 102, 2. a; the rest as before, excepting that here is not a 
larger pause-accent to make & into &. Nor does it need one; for a pe- 
culiar usage here always assigns the form 77% to the word when it has the 
article. (™m77), Methegh after (—), 9. n. 1. a, comp. 16, 2;—3 fem. of the 
verb m4, 74,4, with n. J, also Parad. P.—Arrangement of subject and 





cluded each Hebrew word on which remarks are made, in a parenthesis; merely that 
the eye may easily: and readily catch them, and thus save delay in hunting for 
them. 


APP. | § 3. NOTES ON GEN. 1: 2, 3. 329 


without Dagh. lene because it comes between two vowels, 21.*— Form 
seen under Mm in Lex.; properly of third class of Segholates, 91, 6. 3 = 
smm, which goes into the more facile and euphonious 54m to-bd, which is 
indeclinable. The cases are few in Hebrew, (the suff. pronoun of third 
pers. masc. excepted), in which Vav is permitted to retain its consonant 
power at the end of a word. The predicate here (4mm) as a noun, but in 
sense an adjective, 141, note. This mode of expression in the Hebrew, is 
frequent, and is also intensive. (Am34), 5, 102, 2. d; 3 no Dagh. lene, for 
it is between two vowels, like M above; form, same as above, see M73 in 
Lex.; meaning as a predicate, in the like predicament. (72m), 1 as before ; 
j, Sheva silent written out in final 7, 10, 3. a—Form, 91, 6.3. ("28 d3), 
$9,151, 3.b; omission of the verb was before it, 141. "38, B with Dagh. 
lene, 21, 1; form of const. plur. from 5°25, 87, 2. a, (obsolete singular 35, 
Dec. IX. p. 171, see in Lex.). As to the Gen. (Binm), m, no Dagh. lene, 
because it is between vowels; formed from D4n by prefixing mn, 84. IV. 27; 
for Gen. relation, see 87, 1. (mi) veru*bh), } as before; 1 “hh, Pattah fur- 
tive, 22, 2.5; in const. state before DTN, but-without change, see in Dec. 
I. p. 170. For (="7>x), here in the Gen., see on v. 1. (mMpMa), Part. Piel 
from.517; short vowel under “, and no Dagh. forte in 7, 63, 3, comp. 
Par. E.—For the jem. form here (to agree with min), see 49, 3, and comp. 
92, 2; stands in the place of a verb in the Perf., 131, 2... ("25 52), as before. 
(Dan), “, 85; ove for ov, 29, 4. a; peculiar plural form, 86b, 1. n. 2. 
For the Sillug (), 15, 3, A. 

(3) TIN", for 5, see 48b, 2; for the verb in the Imperf., 67, 1; for the 
final syllable "2 instead of v2, 29,3. a. ‘The Seghol is considered as being 
shorter than the Pattah; see 27, n. 2. ("7"), apoc. Imperf. of N55, 74, 5, 
and n. 3, e, of the same. The normal abridged form here, provided with 
a final helping vowel (note 3, a, ut supra), would be °° or "33; but a final 
* Yodh with a Seghol before it, is an impossible syllable in Hebrew; con- 
sequently the regular Segholate form of the verb is exchanged for that form 
which belongs to derivatives of 45, comp. in 91, 6. 6, and the final syllable 
thus ending in a quiescent Yodh, and being long and demanding the accent, 
the usual vowel under the praeformative (" or °) is excluded, as also the 
tone upon it, and Sheva takes the place of a proper vowel, because it is es- 
sential to the Segholate form in question, comp. 91, 6.6. As to the m— at 
the end of the full form M77", see 74,5. As to the nature and design of 
the apoc. form, see 48, 2, 4, and 126, 2. For the regular short Hhireq be- 
fore a Guttural in the full form, see 62, Note 5. (758), Dec. I p. 170. If 
it be not an original root, it comes from the verb "iN; see 84.1V.3. (774) 
same apoc. verb as before, but with Vav consec., 48b, 2, and 74, n. 3, e. 
As to the Dagh. forte omitted in the ("), see 20, 3, Rem. 


* Where only the (§) is referred to as here, that which comes first, and has no num- 
ber affixed to it, is aimed at by the reference. 
42 


330 § 3. NoTES ON GEN. 1: 4—6. [app. 


(4) 15, apoc. Imperf. of > verb, A857, 48b,2. The final helping vow- 
el is omitted, 74, n. 3, c. a; the nude form would normally be 873 (8 
otiant, 23, 1), but the “ makes it 7", 22, 5.6. As the & is not sounded at 
all, it has no Sheva, see 10, 3. 6. (~m&), as above, excepting that Maqqeph 
follows it, which shortens the vowel (—), 29, 1 and 27,1. ("iNm), 5 arti- 
cle, 35, 1 and 22, 1.—("3), 152. IL—(312), 2 Raphe, i. e. without Dagh. lene, 
because it is preceded by a vowel, comp. 21,2. Here the accent (—) stands 
rightly as to marking the sense. Verb éo be omitted before 210, 141. N. B. 
—{(>3354), stem >72 , Hiph. Imperf. with Vav consec., 48 b, 2. b, and 52, 2 
with n. 1, Also Synt., 126b, 1—(j72), prep. 101, 3, Example—(7Uh), 
see under vy. 2. For the article, 35, 2. A. a. 

(5) SIPs, stem NIP verb xb; Imperf. with Vav consec., 48b, 2. a. 
Synt. as ahove.—(74N>), > prep., pointing, 100. c—(nis), Dec. I. as to the 
sing., the plur. is irregular; see on p. 182, and also Lex. For “n> after 
Nap1, see 1387, bq), prep. > has the yowel that belongs to the article 
which is here dropped, 35, n. 2. For the (—) of the article, see above, v. 4, 
last word. (7p), 73, 1.—("3 layla), ground form >%5 la-yil, Dec. VI; 
the 5— is an addition, originally marking time when, 88, 2. ¢; but gradually 
incorporated with the word itself, see Lex.; it is toneless, 88, 2. Rem. ; > 
for >, because of the (—), 29, 4—(77%)), see in v.3. (292), Dec. VI, comp. 
83, No. 11.—{p3), 2 omits Dagh. lene, because it follows a vowel, 21, 1; 
Segholate form, 91, 6. 3—Both times the "7% here is followed by Magq- 
geph, 16, 1; no accent on either "775, because both are united by a Maq- 
geph to the noun that follows, and in each case both are read as one word, 
16, 1; hence the Methegh in both cases (in 4) stands on the fourth syllable 
back of the tone (p. 45. d), beginning the count with the tone-syllable (the 
penult) of each noun; comp. also (e) on the same page, where the same 
principle is exhibited. Possibly the Methegh in "F171 may be explained, 
by saying that it is on the antepenult (16, 2) of what would be the tone-syl- 
lable, in case the word was accented. But this seems to contradict the 
theory of Maqqeph, which makes both words into one. Of course the ac- 
centuation must conform to this.—(n%") Acc. of time, 116, 2.—(7hy) instead 
of IH&, 27, n. 2. 6; the (—) under the © occasions the exchange of vowels 
under the &, 7b.; this cardinal number, also, is used as an ordinal adjective, 
95, 1. 

(6) VAX", see v. 3.—"M, v. 83—(2"p), participial form, from the stem 
>p2, 83, 5; with Pattah furtive, 22, 2.b; Dec. III, 91,3.—{7in3a), 3, 21, 2; 
sin const. form of 73m, see Par. VI. G. p. 170, also 91, 6. 5.—{D27), see 
v. 2, 2 for 2, because of the pause-accent (~).—{"9") vi-ht), made up of "7" 
and 4; for the pointing (1) here, see 102, 2.c; for the dropping of the She- 
va under the first Yodh in "mm, see 24, 1.a. This apoc. form is jussive, 48, 
4, (comp. in y. 3 above), and not the Imperf. of narration with Vav consec., 
which would be "7775 as above; translate: And let i be.—(3"7132), Hiph. 


APP.| § 3. NoTES on GEN. 1: 7—11. 331 


Part. of 542; this Part. with the preceding "4" is a periphrasis for the In- 
perf. jussively employed, 131, 2. c, comp. 48, 2, 4.—(7"2), see in v. 4—{D"2), 
86, I. n. 2; old sing. va2.—(n7>), > for >, 100, 1. c; 2 for 2, because of 
the Silluq, 29, 4. a. In the expression brad bia ja, the >... 792 seems 
to be merely an abbreviated formula, instead of 7725 . . . j2, which is found 
in vs. 4. 7. Lev. 20: 25. In Is. 52: 2, we meet with }"2>... 2; but in 
Ezek. 22: 26, we have twice, >... 423 all with the same meaning. The 
form in Is. 52: 2 casts light on that now before us, and shows, that for 
brevity’s sake, in the second case, the "2 is not repeated, but merely the > 
employed. "3 properly means interstice, p. 193, Examp.; the waters on 
either side are its boundaries, so that the literal idea seems to be: The in- 
terstice (i. e. the space between) from the waters on the one hand, to the 
waters on the other; or siinply: the between of the waters (limited by wa- 
ters) on the one hand, to (3) the waters on the other. (So, for substance, 
Ewald, Heb. Gramm., p. 414. edit. 5. Tuch, Comm. in loc.). Comp. 152, 3. 

(7) wo; stem AYP, a verb 45; Imperf. with Vav consec., 48 b; form, in 
74, n. 3. d; synt., 126, b—{-nx), with Maqgeph, see v. 4.—(>"p755), see v, 
6; for art. 5, 35, 1—(>7254), see v. 4—(7wix), see 36.{nnrva) = Mn 72, 
compounded of two prepositions, 151, 2; | assimilated, 19, 2. a.—(3"P42), 
> has the punctuation of the omitted article 5 (see above), 100, 1. 6; we 
may translate: From the under part or the firmament, or from the lower part TO 
the firmament ; for the first, 113, 2; for the second, 115, 1; the meaning is 
the same in both cases.—(>372), compound of 53 and 2, 151, 2; the Dagh. 
forte (as in MMM above) cannot be employed here, 22, 1, and for the pro- 
longation of the vowel, see 27, 2. b.—{~"m1"1), see v. 5.—(j2), > Raphe, after 
a vowel,—j> means right, just, and as an adverb of condition here, it cor- 
responds to our English just so. 

(8) N5pt, see v. 5.—{n2W), 2 for 2, by pause-accent; 86, b, n. 2 for 
form.—({n%"), Acc. of time, 116, 2.—("78), ordinal from 5128 two, 96. 

(9) sp, Niphal, 3 plur. Imperf. Jussive of 5p, Vav remains a regular 
consonant, 71, n. 10; comp. Par. P, Imperf. Niph.—{>x), 151, d—{p‘p2), 
Inf. form from Dip, 83, 14, and 84, IV. 14; Dec. TIL. 91, 3.—{7my), see v. 5. 
—nsini, Niph. Imperf. 3 fem. sing. of 585; the normal form would be 
ARM , but " excludes Dagh. forte and prolongs the vowel, 27, 2. 6 and 22, 
5. The | here stands before a second Jussive form in connection with the 
preceding, and is merely and.{7¥a"t), fem. of 25 with the article, 83, 
No, 6; used here like the Greek 7 &yoc, the dry land, the word earth being 
omitted in both languages by brachylogy. 

(10) MYzs>, > takes the vowel of the article, which is elided, 100, b.— 
(ANPP), 5, 102, 2.b; mipa, 84, V. 14, comp. 83, No, 14; the form M}— 
exhibits a const. vowel, see Par. IX. p. 171.—(n"2"), from >, see Par. VIII. 
a, p. 171, comp. 91, 8; etymology uncertain._{x7"1), see v. 4. 

(11) Nm, apoc Imperf. Hiph., jussive, 3 fem., from Nw, 52, n. 4; Me- 


332 §3. NOTES ON GEN. 1: 11—14. [ APP. 


thegh on a penult closed syllable here, p. 45, —{823), 8 here is treated as 
a consonant, the Segholate being of the regular form; and so elsewhere ; 
but not always, e. g. 8YM.—(2wy), 91, 6. 2; in the same case as NWF, not 
exactly explanatory apposition, but apposition expanding the idea, and un- 
connected by a } conjunction. The larger vegetation, producing seed, is 
meant by the word. Brachylogy omits the appropriate verb, unless we ex- 
pand the idea of Nw4M so as to apply to it. The like applies to 73, in the 
sequel—(>7172), Hiph. Part. of 271, 64, 1. a—{271), with Gutt. in the ul- 
timate, 91, 6, in the remarks on such Gutturals; in connection with the 
Part. preceding, which is from the same root, 135, 1.n. 1—(72), etymology 
doubtful, Dec. VII. b, p. 171, also 91, 7—(""8), 91, 6. 6. Par. VI. i; 5 with 
Dagh. conjunctive, 20, 2. 1; read 36-sép-peri; lit. tree of fruit = fruit tree, 
104, 1.—(nii>, Y0-sé), the point over the right tooth of the © is a Hholem 
which belongs to the preceding letter; the point over the left tooth marks 
the letter as Sin = s, 8, 2. a; Pres. Part. of the verb M2; with final n—, 
74, 1. Par. P; means producing, like the Greek sro.civ.—{i2%>), > prep.; 
y72, Dec. I.; i- suff. pron., 89, 1; 3 sing. masc., in reference to 72. —(7OR 
‘3. ..), in which, 121, 1; it relates to the "4 that precedes—(i>%3), suff. 
form of 271, see in Par. VI. p. 171; ‘— as before. Translate: in which is 
ats seed ; for the verb of existence is implied, 141.—(y9xn->3), upon the earth, 
i. e, ‘Let the earth cause to grow (Wm) herbage, seed-plants, and fruit- 
trees upon it, viz. upon its surface.’—(j2-77754) , see the close of v. 7, where, 
as here, the Athnahh stands on the next preceding word. 

(12) simi, Hiph. Imperf: of 87, 3 fem. sing. with Vav consec., 48 b, 2. 
b; verb "5, first class, 68, 1.—(mp-nidy . ... xvis), in the same order and 
meaning as before, and without any } conjunction between the particulars, 
showing that it is the apposition of expansion.—(""2), as before, with Dagh. 
conjunctive, 20, 2. 1—(i3 .. . "wix), as in v. 11.—(12%23), above it is 1222, 
see suff in Par. .4. p. 289. Gen. suff. A. 3 pers.; the meaning is the same 
in both, but the (4) is an abridged form of "4—.—{73), see v. 4. 

(13) sun, an ordinal ; see form in 96.—n‘", time when, Ace., 116, 2. 

(14) naN2, m’xo-roth, Vav omitted after 8 and “, 8, 4, comp. a ibid. ; 
plur. of "582, masc. Dec. HI. This word has plurals both masc. and fem. 
as to form, 86, 4; formation of the sing., 84, IV. 14, comp. 83, No. 14; plur. 
form of noun joined to the preceding verb sing., 144, 1. a—{2"—73), const. 
form of 2"p 4, Dec. III.; the article belongs here, but cannot be employed 
before a const. noun, 109, 1; it is expressed before the following word in 
the Gen., ib.—(-729>), Inf. Hiph. of 32; for the > before it, 45,3; Inf. 
retains the formative 4 here, after the preposition 34 52, 0.7. ("o.40a), 
see above, at the end of v. 6.—(5*m), Kal, 3 plar. Perf. of A77, with Vav 
consec., 48 b, 3, and used here as a Jussive, comp. 124, 6. a.— DAN? , Vav 
omitted (as above), after 8 and the first 5, 8,4; plur. of nix = m38, which 
is common gender; for the form, see 84, VI. No. 4.—(prpinb4), 5, 102, 2. 


APP. | §3. NOrEs ON GEN. 1: 15—20. 333 


b; prep. >, 100, 1; the noun is the plur. of 43772, Dec. VII, 91, 7; stem 
S20, see Lex. eipeation, 84, IIL 14, comp. 82, No, 14.—{nv2">1), 24 as be- 
fore; for Dv27,"see Di on p. 182.—(p72W), sing. Nv fem., with plur. of 
mase. form, 86, 4. The >i is omitted before D278 in order to connect this 
word more closely with ‘the bopeedig one. Translate : ‘For appointed 
seasons, both for days and years; this last clause is added so as more spe- 
cifically to limit the preceding noun—seasons. 

(15) 5713), see above—{M7N'32), here with only one Vav omitted, above 
with two; pointing of the prep. ave 100. Punct. a.—(3"p73), pointing of 2, 
100. Punct. a; 25" Banke form of >"pr, Dec. UL —("N19) > before the 
Inf, 46, 3; verb 13; for  praeformative and its vowel, 1, see 71, 3; stem is 
“is verb middle O, 71, 2; see in Par. M. 

(16) 251, see v. 7.—(7243), const. form of D174, see on p. 183,—(m5N277), 
see same orthography in v. 14; here the art. precedes; for syntax, 118, 1. a. 
—(n"2537), plur. of the sing. dunn, Dec. IlI.; Vav after 5 omitted, 8, 4. a; 
article before the adjective, 109, 2.—(>4550), the great one, i. e. the larger or 
largest, 117, 2.—(m>ui20>), const. form from M>v272, Par. B. p. 179, and 
93, 1, in the second e. g.; an Inf. form with an active or gerundial sense.— 
(j2pM), the lesser ; see 537 above.—(N>"5F), with article, see v. 5 for the 
word.—(p"2353), see Lex. under sing. 12> (Dec. III.) for etymology and 
form; Acc. after 274. 

(17) jn, Kal, Imperf. of jm2, with 1 consec.; see p. 122, at the top, also 
Par. H. p. 300; also 65, n. 3—(nnkk), made up of M8 and a suff. pronoun, 
101, n. 1. The arrangement should be noticed here; which is verb, object, 
subject ; the reason of which seems to be that DO& expresses what D— (the 
verbal suffix) would do in D357, and on this account is brought into prox- 
imity with the verb. The placing of the pronoun in a separate way, makes 
it more noticeable. As to the rest of the verse, see above. 

(18) >ita5), 1 and; 3, with short Hhireq, p. 190, at the top; >i, Inf. 
form before which is >, 45, 3.—(2%>3), prep. 2 having under it the vowel 
of the article elided, 100, b.—{nb"234), 5, 102, 2. b; 3 prep. with the vowel 
as before. The use of the article in these cases, is like the same in our 
English idiom; for we say: 7'o rule over the day and over the night, as con- 
tradistinguisbed from each other; and this is made more expressive by the 
article. That 5 has the sense of over, in connection with dita, is plain ; 
see 151, 3. a. 2.—(>"713951), 1. as above; > prep.; see the word in v. 14.— 
Winn), see v. 4.—(x21), v. 4. (19) 92934, ordinal, 96. . 

(20) sx", Kal, Imperf. Jussive, 48, 4, second paragraph; translate: 
Let the waters swarm with reptiles ; for V3 in connection with a verb from 
the same root, see 135, 1, n. 1.—(¥3), lit. breath; with H°m it means pro- 
perly living breath; in apposition with 7348, 111, qualifying it by showing 
that it comprises living and breathing animals, in distinction from vegetable 
life—(7°9), fem. adj. from "nM vivus, root Mm, and hence the Dagh. forte, 


304 §3. NoTEs ON GEN. 1: 21, 22. » [app. 


when the adjective receives an accession, comp. 66, 3.—(5)121), for form, 
see 84, IV. 11; of Dec. I.; prop. wing = winged bird.—(pgi>"), stem 51>; 
Imperf. Pilel, 71, 7, Par. M. p. 804, comp. 54, 2.—{"28 dy), in front of, or 
before the face of, see Ges, Lex. 528, G; const. form before "Pp", which 
again is itself of the const. form before Dvzzm, 112, 1. The phraseology 
is somewhat obscure ; but the meaning seems to be: ‘ Let the winged bird 
fly near the firmament, i. e. mount high aloft.” 

(21) spas, 48 b, 2—(n°3"2M), here as a noun, but prop. an adjective 
meaning huge, from 42m to extend; form, 83,7; plur. with article; the ad- 
jective that follows (0°53) makes the meaning more intense = huge mon- 
sters, applying to those of either water or land.—(~>3 kol), original form >3, 
vowel shortened by Maqqeph, 27, 1, comp. 16,1. This word is not em- 
ployed as an adjective in the Hebrew, but always as a noun = universilas, 
totum. Of course the noun following it is in the Gen.—(w53), here breath 
= breathing creature, abstract for concrete, 104, 2, second Par. under e. g.— 
(M*m7), art. 7, 35, 2. a, the Dagh. forte is dropped because the next letter 
will not admit it, 22,1. If M55 is an adjective here, then the presence of 
the article makes a difficulty on the ground of general principle; see 109, 2. 
But still, the Heb. not unfrequently superadds the article to the adjective, 
when the noun is destitute of it, 109, 2. a. I deem the true construction, 
in all such cases, to be the same as when the article is employed before a 
participle, i. e. it is then a relative-demonstrative pronoun (107), making a 
clause by itself; e. g. in the present case, M7, which [is] living. And 
this is confirmed by the very next word—(mw25), which, or 4, the which ; 
for the (—) see 35, 1, and 22,5; Part. from 29, used instead of the normal 
nivah fem., 49, 3. 92, 2. 93, 3; translate creeping, or (more literally) which 
creepeth—(4278), for Methegh after (—), 16, 2, in Remarks.—(2"25), for 
suff. oF, see 89, 2, n. 1, which shows that a Yodh is omitted here after the 
3 in the word, which would be an inder pluralitatis; see suff. in Par. A. p. 
289.—(->2) as before —{522), lit. of wing = winged, 104, 1. 

(22) Fav, 48b, 2; Dagh. forte omitted in the (*), 20, 3. c. Rem.; (—) in 
the final syllable instead of (—), because the tone is drawn back to the pe- 
nult, 29, 3. a, comp. 27, 1—(nom&), see v. 17; the order here is predicate, 
object, subject, the same as there.—"aX>), contract-form for “%oX>, prep. > 


with the Inf; the pointing > (in the full form), p. 190, a; see also 23, 2. a, 
which shows that & in the contracted form is quiescent. The > is used here 
ina peculiar way; for the meaning is not properly an Inf, viz. to say, but 
gerundial — dicendo. The > sometimes denotes by, in the sense of desig- 
nating instrumentality or causation, Ges. Lex. 5 4. ¢. Similar to this it 
seems to be in “and (lé-mor), which may be translated by saying. Our 
idiom more naturally omits the by.—(2"8), Kal, Imper. of Hp, 74, 3, Par. 
P. p. 308.—(134), 1, 102, 2.6; stem 3"; form same as above.—(5N>74) , 
1 conj., 102, 2. b, latter part; & has a consonant power here, 23, 2.—(p*2"3), 


APP. | § 3. NorEs ON GEN. 1: 23—29. 339 


3 prep. with the pointing of the article elided, 100, 6 ; for the noun plur., see 
Dec. VIII, p. 171 and 91, 8.—(Fi259}), 5 art., 35, 2. 2, b.—(3), from 73, 
Imperf. Jussive 74, n. 3, and 74, 5.—{7283), 3, 100, b. (23) “vivant, 96. 

(24) VQNhi, see v. 3—(N¥'im), Jussive Imperf,, from Nx, see, as to the 
form, in v. 12.—{972'33), p. 179, Par. B.—(v29), 3, 102, 2. d—(inwn), for 
const. mr, from mm; see 88, 3.b; Dagh. forte in (1) omitted, 20, 3. b. 
The suffix paragogic (i) seems to dispense with the article after it, (as in this 
case in respect to 738); and so in all cases, e. g. Ps. 50, 10. 79: 2. 104: 11, 
20. Zeph. 2: 14. Is. 56: 9." In this last case, by changing the mode of ex- 
pression, we have “253 inst, i. e. we have the article (in 2) before the se- 
cond noun; but the sam expression, without the preposition, omits the ar- 
ticle in Ps. 104: 20; and v. 25 here supplies it, when the i— is omitted.— 
(m2"2>), A= third fem. suff, Par. 4. p. 289. col. A., referring to the fem. m5n. 

(25) y385 msm, where the article is supplied, although omitted in the 
preceding verse after in7.—(02985), 4, 35, 1; noun fem. Par. B. p, 179. 

(26) Mp2, first plur. Imperf. of Hv, for the first two vowels, see 62, 2; 
for the last vowel, 74, 1. e. g.; hortative, 125, 3. 6; us to the plural here, it 
is probably of the same nature as that in 106, 2. (D7), seems to be a 
particiyial of DIN rubuit, 83, 1, indicating the colour of an Asiatic. If the 
rules of formation would permit, the context would agree better with a de- 
rivation from +23 to be like, but they do not; the noun is of Dee. IV, and is 
generic, as y. 27 shows.—(172>%3),, suff, form of bx, Dec. Vi.a; 33—, suff, 
p. 289, under A.—(52m17253), 2 as, according to; for the vowel, p. 190, a; 
form of the noun, 84, V. 13; immutable; 52 as before—({1977)), Kal In- 
perf. of M37, verb 4b; hortative, and therefore the Vav is pointed 1, and 
not 5 as it would be in the narrative Imperf, with 1 consec.—{n373), 3 Ra- 
phe because it follows a vowel; 41 Raphe because derived from 735, 21, 2. 
a; const. of Dec. IL fem. The 2 is connected with, and required by, the 
preceding verb, 137, b, and must be translated over.—(72519), see in v. 21; 
3 which, the which, 107, first Remarks (2). 

(27) 252, suff. state with i, as above —(inx), 101, n, 1—{73p35 42), 
Dec. IV. masc.; Dec. II. fem.; 4, 102,2.6. In the Acc, in apposition with 
pms, and exegetical of it, 111. Put first, so as to be prominent, 142, 1. «— 
(am&) relates to D5N, v. 26, and shows it to be generic. 

(28) 772%, see v. 22.—(rNb), 101, 2. a—For several of the following 
words, see in y. 22.—(432)), Kal Imper. of 22; the 4 after omitted, 
and bx) written instead of it, 9, 9. b; m— verbal suff. pron., Par. 4. p. 288. 
A col. 

(29) m2, 103, 2, comp. 98, 5.—("MN3), for Dagh. forte in m, see 65, n. 3. 
—(p22), 101, 2. a—(>. .. WN), in which (121, J) is the fruit of the tree— 
(455 D1), see in v. 12, where, however, the Part. is in Hiph., but here in 
Kal.—(577"), Kal Imperf. of 575, regular pointing, 62, n. 5.—(M2=x>), lit. 
for food; in English we omit the for; see Lex, 574 with > following, b. 


336 § 3. NoTES on GEN. 1: 30—2: 4. - [APP 


(30) 4 and, thrice, 102, 2. b.—(15 pi), green thing, vegetating substance, 
Md2N> YY herb for food, limiting and explaining P73. (31), 3N72, 147, 3. a. 


Chap. I. 

(1) PD, Pual, third plur., Imperf. with Vav consec., of 22 ; Dagh. forte 
omitted in ", 20, 3. c, Rem.—({DXax), suff. form of Naz, Dec. IV.; 5, p. 
289, A. Properly host applies only to the heavens, which are plur., and 
means the stars. 

(2) bo, Piel Imperf. of D2 ; “as before ; Dagh. forte omitted in the 5) 
20, 3. a; apoc. form, 74, n. 9; sing. verb and plur. subject, 106, 2. b— 
(ni°2), 2 with the vowel of the art. elided, p. 190, b,—(in2N22), the regu- 
lar form (from the stem 78?) would be TSN; but in the Syriac, (which 
is occasionally imitated by the Hebrew), where & has a long vowel and is 
preceded by a Sheva, that vowel falls back into the place of the Sheva, and 
the & hecomes quiescent. This being adopted in the present case, gives us 
the form maNb2, the 2 being forced to drop its Pattah because the > is ta- 
ken from it, which was necessary to make the closed syllable ct Under 
this new form, the (—) remains what it was in the normal form, i. e. muta- 
ble; hence in suff. and const. state, im>N2 and manda, the & being practi- 
cally ofiant. The §— is suff., p. 289, A—(mau74), 48b,2.a. The last clause 
here, viz. “ God rested from all his work on the seventh day,” makes it clear 
that the aa, at the beginning of the verse, means made an end of, ceased to 
continue. The change of seventh, in the first clause, to sixth, which is adopt- 
ed by the Samaritan, the Sept., and the Syriac version, is unnecessary, and 
merely shows an attempt to remove a seeming contradiction. 

(3) wapt, Piel Imperf., with Vav consec., 48 b, 2. a—(ink&), 101, n. 1— 
("D), 152, I.—(nivs>), Kal Inf. of Hive ; 5, 108, a; created and made, gives 
essentially the meaning of the last clause in the verse; but lit. mitvy> may 
be translated faciendo, by making, or for making, or to be made; see 129, 3. 
n. 1. The writer seems to express the original bringing into being, by Noa, 
and the subsequent formations and arrangements by MY; although the 
words are sometimes used interchangeably. 

(4) HN, § 34.—(nis>4n), first m Raphe, after a vowel in the preceding 
word; pl. noun, stem 25 formation, 84, III. No. 27. It does not mean 
history simply; it may naturally mean genealogy; but here the meaning is 
genelic history ; plural, because it comprises narrations of a variety of things; 
see 106, 2.—(SN 72553) , lit. in the being created of them, i. e. when they were 
created, 129, 2; treated here as a nomen verbale, with prefix prep., and suf- 
fix B=, 129, 1; Inf. const. form of Niphal.—(oi3), although definite, has 
not the article, 108, 2—(nivz), Inf. of Mwy, used as a noun in the Gen., 
129, 1. 6. It bas a subject here, (Mim), standing next to it, and in the Gen. 
after it, 129, 2; order of words in the clause, 142, 1. a, 


APP. | § 3. NOTES ON GEN. 2: 5—8. } 337 


(5) mn, shrub or plant, from m7 (verb %3) to produce ; form, 84, IV. No. 
11.—(n7wh), with the article; Dee, IX.—(D9u), adverbial Acc., = not yet, 
see Lex. s, v. No. 3. Standing before 537" here, it makes it expressive of 
the past time, 125, 4. a; regular pointing of 477", 63, n. 5.—(yox3), 2 with 
the vowel of the article implied, 100, 6, and 35, 1.—( 72x"), Imperf. made 
expressive of past time by 594 as above; Qamets under 7 instead of (-), 
because of the pause-accent, 29, 4. a.—{X>), position, in relation to the 
verb, p. 268, par. 2.—("74734), Hiph. in its proper causative sense, 52, 2.— 
(728), was not, the subject is here expressed, viz. DIN; see j°8 on p. 268.— 
(3223), vowel of 3, p. 190, a; Inf. form, 45, 3. 

(6) 58, origin somewhat uncertain; the Chald. has 48, which shows 
that the word may be derived from a root 15 or "+; comp. "5 in 84, IV. 2. 
—(n>2°), Kal Imperf., showing the real nature of this tense, viz. as desig- 
nating imperfect or unfinished action, and so of continued and repeated ac- 
tion; which last is the exact shade of meaning here, 125, 4. b—("pwn), 
Hiph, Perf. of HP; put in the same condition here as the preceding verb, 
in respect to meaning, by the Vav prefixed, 124, 6.d—("28), const. plur. of 
2B; we say face, the Hebrew says faces, 106, 2. a. 

(7) ss, Imperf. with Vav consec.; written plené, p. 127, bottom; the 
accent (little Telisha, p. 42, No. 28), being post-positive, marks not the tone, 
15, Rem. 2; the tone syllable is the penult here, 29, 3. a, and 48 b, 2. b— 
(BaFT>N mim), the junction of these two names, here and in chap. iii, and 
in some other portions of Genesis, has given rise to a great variety of criti- 
cal and grammatical conjectures and speculations; see in Rosenm., or Tdich, 
Comm. on Genesis. I regard them as in apposition, an apposition that 
unites the special and the genera] name of the Godhead—somewhat like 
God, the Omnipotent.—{"5>), Dec. IV. here a second Acc. of material, 136, 
2.—(mB51), Kal, Imperf. with Vav, from M52, 2 assimilated, 65,2; Pattah in 
final syllable, 64, 1, 2.—(1"x3), suff. dual form of 58, absolute dual DIBN ; 
see Lex. The Dagh. forte in 5 comes from the assimilation of 3 in 3%, 
nostril, which is the real ground-form, 19, 2. b. n. 1; suff. "=, p. 289, col. 
B. third pers. sing —({r2¥2), const. form of 2W2, 87, 2. b(n"), plur. of 
“ns, Dec. VIII. ; plural in accordance with 106, 2. a. Here the order of the 
clause is, subject (implied in the verb, he), predicate, circumstance of manner, 
object ; comp. 142.—("7735) stands connected with F2n wh, see Lex, n° 
seq. >. b. 

(8) us, Kal Imperf. of 223; form of the same, 65, 2; for final Pattah, 
64, 1. 2.—{j3), formed from 523, 84. Il. No. 2; Dec. VIIL—{j723), lit. in a 
pleasure-place, or pleasant-place ; form 2 of Dec. VI_—({n3>2), eastward, lit. 
away from before; which of course means eastward, because the Hebrews 
reckon position or direction, from the place of sun-rising, or from the as- 
sumed fact, that the face is turned to the rising sun. Eastward from the 
place of the writer, is here doubtless meant——(nw>1), apoc. Hiph. Imperf, 

43 


ae 


338 § 3. Wi: ON GEN. 2: 9—13. [APP. 


of piv, a verb 49; accent thrown on the penult, 29, 3. a, and so the normal 
final Tsere goes into Seghol, 27, 1. a.—(pw), there, 127, 1. Par. 2—("5), 
with pause-accent (Silluq), so written instead of the usual 75, 29, 4. a; has 
the sense of Pluperf., 124, 2. 

(9) mazes, apoc. Hiph. Imperf.; final Pattah, 64, 1. c. in third par.; cau- 
sative meaning, 52, 2, made to grow or shoot up—(v2"32), Niph. Part., with 
(—) under the praeformative 2, p. 118, near the top; translate: to be desired 
= desirable, lovely.—("8'Y2), form from mx, 84, V. No. 14.—(>2829), 
form from >2x, 83, No. 14—(p"n), 4, 35, 2. a—(Fina), const. form of 
1m, 91, 6. 5—(j30), Qamets under 4 instead of (—), 29, 4. a, the pause-ac- 
cent being Zagéph Qaton, p. 42, IL 5.—(n23n), fem. Inf. nominascens, with 
article, from 975, 68, n. 1—(>"4), 9, 102, 2. d; Qamets under “ instead of 
Pattah, 29, 4. a. 

(10) “m2, form, 83, No. 1. Dee, IV.—(s4), Part. of 8z>, used for a verb 
in the Perf., 13], 1, or ib. 2, e-—(j'1372), 2 for ya, 22, 1{nipns), Hiph. 
Inf. of MP; 4 praeform. retained, 52, n. 7.—{D¥2) 2 with Dagh. forte after 
it — 72, 19, 2. a; compound form of the word, 151, 2—(775"), Niph. Im- 
perf., if was divided; used to express past time, 125, 4.—(APB.N>), fem. 
form with masc. noun, 95, 1; the numerals 3—10, although plural, do not 
possess plural forms ; see Par., p. 183.—(D°tN), heads or sources ; sing. OX 
for Ux5, Dec. VI, and so plur. contracted as above for 2x4; see Lex. 
The full form would be of Dec. VJ.; the contracted one is Dec. I. 

(11) ov, Dee. VII. p. 171.—{79N7), 5 art.; for the word, see notes on 
Gen. 1; 5, at the end.—_{7iw"»), prop. name, but probably formed from 53; 
see in Lex.; for the form, 83, No. 15.—(855), pron. = a@vtd¢ éots, the same 
as it, 119, 2—(a2M), which encompasses, 4 a relative demonstrative here, 
109, 2. a; Part. used for a verb, 131, 2. a.—7>"955), prop. name with the 
art. before it, contrary to more common usage, 108, 1, and indicating that 
the name is of the appellative kind, 107, 3.—({nw ex) where, 121, 1—{3557), 
Dec. IV, with the article, contrary to our English idiom; see p. 206, b. 

(12) ams, 4, 102, 2, 6; amt, const. form; (—) under + instead of (—), 10, 
2, n. No. bef ext avt7r, that same; has the article because its 
noun has it, 109, 2.—(242) is good, the copula being implied, 141—({md5an), 
article again before the generic name of a substance, p. 206, b. The same 
in omen. 

(13) "eM, art. here, 109, 2—(jim74), form 83, No. 15, from mn, = the 
impetuous.—(%51 845), as above. —(7254), like a2=m above, which proceeds 
along.—("27})) const. fem. form, Dec. I. of the fem.; the Ace. after the 
preceding Part. (135, 3. d) presents essentially such a construction; or it 
may be classified with the adverbs in 147, 1.—(0393593 925), both with 
the article, 109, 2; Nom. absolute, which we must translate: as to the fourth 
river, it is (NIM == avrg got), ete., 119, 2—(m9B), P Raphe, after a vowel ; 
meaning: sweet river; as to form, comp. 83, No. 13. 


* . 


APP. | § 3. YOTES ON GEN. 2: e.., 339 


(15) mp, see 65, n. 2, and comp. 19, 2. a. b.—(anm234), Hiphb. Imperf. 
with Vay consec., from 3, written defective, the Yodh after > being omitted ; 
of the Chaldaic form, 71, n. 9; 1m~, suff, p. 288, A. With such a Vav, we 
should of course expect the form would have a short vowel, like m5", 
(48 b, 2. 6) ; but when the suffix is added here, the (—) long remains un- 
der the 5; see in Fiirst’s Concord. Heb—(m733>), Inf. with > prep., and 
suff. m—, p. 288, A; for Inf: form in this case, see 60, 1, also in Par., p. 293. 
—Same in respect to the next word. 

(16) "s1, apoc. Imperf. of Piel from mx; Dagh. forte omitted in (*), 
20, 3. c—Dagh. forte omitted in the final Vay, 20, 3. a.—(7¥ax>), see in 1: 
22.—(j37), in pause.+-(>5N), Inf. abs. before a kindred verb, 128, 3. a— 
(P2kn), 73, 2. 

(17) yee, 1, 102, 2.5; 2 = 72, the } would be represented by a Dagh. 
forte in the > (19, 2. a), if it could receive it; but as it cannot (20, 3. c), 
so the vowel is lengthened as a compensation, 20, 3. a. Dec. VIL—("235 
"31), see v. 9 above.—(b2Nn), with final Pattah, (in the preceding verse, 
with final J'sere), because its jussive nature shortens the form, 126, 2.— 
(1222), 101, 2, see also the Par. on p. 192.—(o%"3), although definite, omits 
the article, 108, 2.—(F P28 , N¢kh6l-kha), Inf. with suff., 60, n. 2. Par. of Inf, 
p- 292.—(n772), Inf, abs., 128, 3. a; form of it, 74, 1. c. Inf—(mr2n), Kal, 
2 sing. Imperf., 71, 3, for the vowel of the praeformative ; render : thou shalt 
surely die. 

(18) D5 mins, Inf. nominascens of 47; lit. meaning of the clause: the 
being of the man by himself [is] not good ; 4 art., because the noun here de- 
signates an individual ; "725, lit. in his loneliness ; > of condition, Lex. B. 3; 
sa from 332, 84, H. No. 1, which accounts for the Dagh. forte in the 5 
above, Dec. VIL: ‘- suff, p. 289, A—The predicate, 3iv Nd, 142, 1. 5; 
copula (to be) pmintdd; 141,—(ib-nivee ; Ne-sél-10), with Dagh. conjunctive 
in >, 20, 2. 1; Imperf. of Hv, first pers. sing—(i7222), 2, pointing, 100, 
1; 1523, suff. form of 533; we should naturally expect 4742 or 732; the Seg- 
hol under the first radical in the suff. form, is an exception to the usual 
vocalization, as it belongs to Gutturals in such cases. For the peculiar 
meaning here, see in Lex. 

(19) “55, written defective ; see full form in vy. 7 above-—(83"1), Im- 
perf. Hiph. of 812, see Par. p. 310, 48b, 2. 6; in the Hiph. sense, caused to 
come = brought.—(nix7>), Inf. with >, p. 138, near the top; also 45, 3.— 
(iS-e9pP "72, read: may-yiq-ra 16), m2 followed by Dagh. conjunctive, = 
hay repeated Maqgeph, 16, 1; x p7 followed by >= = lo name, 137; 
suff, p. 289, A—(H?m 52), in apposition with and explanatory of ‘>, an 
The prep. need not be repeated; this principle is virtually exhibited in 
151, 4—(s5n), the same was; as above in v. 11.—(172), suff. form of Dw, 
Dec. VIL. 

(20) And Adam called the names, >>> of every, etc.; the > here, and in 


340 § 3. NOTES ON GEN. 2: 21—20. [apr. 


two following cases, is a circumscription of the Genitive, 113, 2—(bndx>5), 
1, and yet, but still, 152, I. B.b; for Adam 8x2 Nd, one found not, 134, 3, = 
there was not found.—( 7322), as in v. 18 ad fin. 

(21) >B>1, Hiph. Imperf. with Vav consec., from DBS , 65, 2; for shorten- 
ed form, see 48 b, 2. b; caused to fall, 52, 2.—(T235n), form like nouns in 
83, IV. 27.—(jxi""2), Kal Imperf. of jw, 69, 1; in pause, and so the (=) 
of the ultimate is lengthened.—(Mp*)), see in v. 15.—(nns), fem. of thx, p. 
183; the like of this in 19, 2. b, n. L—(1"n>>x72), 2 with Dagh. forte = ya, 
101, 2; the noun is from yo, Dec. IV, 91, 4, common gender, with plur. 
of both forms, see Lex.; 1" plur. suff, p. 289, B—(nimnn), mmm with a 
verbal suffix, 101, n. 3, p. 289, B. of the verbal suffix. 

(22) jan, Kal Imperf. with Vay, from M23, 74, n. 3.—(AwR>), lit. for a 
woman, so as to denote the object for which the rib was appropriated ; we 
say: formed the rib into a woman; MEN (for MBN), fem. of 2X man, with 
the Mun of the mase. assimilated, 19, 2. a—(Ax2%), Hiph. Imperf. with 
Vav; Dagh. forte omitted in (7), 20, 3.c. Rem.; retains the prolonged form 
(although — is written defective), because of the suff.; see on Smm2>) in v. 
15; 5- suff, p. 288, A. 

(23) oven, 107, Rem. under first Par.—(2822), 2 = 2; suff. plur. 
form of Dg, p. 171 in Par. VI; with plur. suff. -—.—(""w22), 72 with 
Dagh. forte = 772; the noun is const. form of Dec. IV. p. 170.—(ns1>), on 
account of this; see Lex—(s"P1), Imperf. of Niph., tt shall be called, or 
rather, there shall be called TUX, woman.—(W7N2), 2 —= 72 —("np>), Pual 
3 fem. for MnP? 5 the Dagh. forte being omitted, the composite Sheva is 
taken in its stead, 10, 2. 2. 6; for Methegh after >, see 16, 2—(mN3) = 
avty 3 with Dagh. conj., 20, 2. 1. 

(24) jE7b2, 152, 2. d.—(~ars2 ya"zdbh), 62, 2; the final Hbolem is short- 
ened into Qamets Hhatuph by the Maqgeph, 29, 1 and 3.—(1"38), his father ; 
see in 94, 2, and in Par. 4, p. 289.—(‘), suff. form of o8, Dec. VIII, as 
if from O28; see 30, 2—(P271), with the sense of a future, 124, 6. a.— 
(ime), with suff, p. 182, at the top; irregwar in its forms.—(> 5°54), 
tense as before; this verb followed by > means to become, 137; see in Lex. 

(25) a5, Imperf. of 435 with Vav, p. 238, second par. from the top.— 
(ori), suff. form of pi, 95; on— suff, p. 289.—(p%a2), plur. of 
nin>; form, 33, No, 21, Dec. VIU.; the Dagh. forte in appears contrary 
to 26, 5, but as (—) often stands for Shureq (4), 9, 9. 1. 6, so the latter is 
now and then used as if it were the short vowel (—), i. e. in a closed syl- 
lable unaccented. The Shureq is often short in the Chaldee. The Maso- 
rites have marked this anomaly. A star over the word remits the reader to 
the margin; where a Hebrew note informs him, (as something unusual), 
that Dagh. forte follows Shureq; see in 27,3. ¢.n. 1—(swian? X54), verb 
from ia, in Hithpalel, 54,2; comp. 71,7; Imperf., p. 133 at the top; 8 
for 8 because of the pause-accent, 29, 4. b; properly of a reflexive meaning : 


APP. | §3. NOTES ON GEN. 3: 1—5, 341 


did not shame themselves. The > (not) qualifies the verb and must stand 
next to it, p. 268, second par.; consequently the Vav consec. (that would be 
attached to the verb if it had no negative before it), is remitted to a place 
before the Xd, and has, in such a case, the same effect in making the verb 
significant of past time, as if joined to the verb, 126b, 1. 


Chap. Iit. 

(1) Umm, see 152, 1. for 1, which here marks continuation of narration, 
even where there is a transition to a new subject; like dé in Greek. It 
covers the ground of both dé and xe, in its general usage; 4 article be- 
cause a distinction fronY other creatures is designed.—As to serpent, in what 
light the N. Test. writers viewed the meaning, is evident from Rev. 12: 9. 
20: 2. Rom. 16: 20. Luke 10: 18, 19. John 8: 44.—("") was; al. became ; 
which may be defended by 575 in v. 22 below.—(n%3), participial adjec- 
tive, 83, No. 5, cunning, here ina bad sense; the root Do2 means (1) WVu- 
davit ; and from this comes the participial in 2: 25 above; it also means, 
(2) Callidus fuit; and from this is the present word. The two different 
derivates are distinguished by their vowels; as was very natural.—(>27), 
i. e. 72 = rather than, more than, 117, 1.—(73 58), in a question: ts it verily 
so that 2 152, 2. a.—(1>2Xkn), 67, 1 

(2) 2, although specific and filling the place of a Gen, after "52, yet is 
itself before another Gen., and therefore cannot have the article, 108, 2.— 
(22X82), Imperf. 1 plur., potential mode, 125, 3. d. 

(3) s2am, Kal Imperf. of 222, 65, 2; has an Imper. force here, 125, 3. ¢. 
—(%3), the 3 belongs to the ‘ih; 137, comp. 151, 2.—(78), p. 269, second 
par.—(jirv2m), for the normal 5mm; the j1~ is the old ending, and is most- 
ly retained where the verb is emphatic, 47, 3. n. 43 accent on the ultimate, 
(as here Silluq) ; which is usual in all such cases, ib., e. g. Joel 2: 4, 7, 9. 
Of course, the tone being thrown forward by the pause-accent (71, 6 gives 
the normal place of tone here), the Qamets under  praeformative is drop- 
ped, 27, 3. (4) mia, 128, 3. 

(5) 24, Part. pres.; for Pattah furtive, see 22, 2. b—(D2>=x atkhol- 
khem), Inf, as a noun, 129, 1; as to the form, 60, 1. n, 2—(ampE2), Perf. 
Niph. with Vav, 124, 6.d; 4 then, 152, 1. B. 1—(am), Perf. Kal of mn, 
2 plur.; without } the form would have a composite Sheva (—) under then, 
which, however, in this form becomes Sheva simple, and so Vav sake 
short Hhireq, 102, 2. c-—(a*H>x2), contract form of n-n> ND, a contraction 
of (=) into (—), occuring in ax>, Gen. 1: 22, and often elsewhere. The 
comp. Sheva, in this case, is treated as a simple Sheva (at the end of a sylla- 
ble and under the letter &) would be treated, 23, 1; but see in particular, 
23, 2. a, showing that comp. Shevas may go to form contracted vowels.— 
(o2°%5), const. form of pl. Part., stem 375, 182, 1. b—(255), 3, 102, 2. d; 


342 §3. NOTES ON GEN. 3: 6—12. _ [are. 


35 (from 39", 84, I. 2) is the ground-form; which becomes 34 in pause, 
29, 4. a. 

(6) xm, apoc. Imperf. Kal of 4x5, 3 fem., with (—) under the prae- 
formative m, 74, n.3, b; for Seghol under ", see ib. n. a; synt., 126b, 1.—_ 
(v2 242), copula omitted, 141.—(mNM), formed from mix, 84, V. 27; 
object of desire; abstract for concrete = desirable, optabilis—(xin) was tt, 
119, 2.—(772"21), Niph. Part.; for m2, see p. 118, near the top; = deside- 
randum, 131, 1.—(y2%), copula omitted before it, 141—(>*2wn>), Hiph. 
Inf. with >; 5 retained, 52, n. 7—(mpm}), Imperf. with Vav, 3 fem.; see 
mpss in 2: 15.—(inB), 2 with Dagh. forte = 72; the noun in suff. state, 
p. 171, VI. i—(=xm1), Imperf, 3 fem. with 5 consec.—(jmm1), 3 fem. Im- 
perf. of jm2, 65, 2, comp. 47, 3. n. 2—(mu=x>), H—, 3 fem. suff. pron., p. 
289, A.—(m22), with her ; suff. as before; prep. as if from oy, like Dec. 
VIL; comp. 101, 1—(22X1), >> for 52, p. 70, at the bottom. 

(7) monpsm, Niph. Imperf. 3 plur. fem. of MB, with Vav consec.; for 
the penult Mp, p. 120 at the bottom; fem. bevause its subject (1272) is so; 
the latter is the dual const. form of j93.—(42751), Kal Imperf. with Vay, 
68, 1. a and n, 3.—(B27"2), Yodh of om plur. ending omitted; a diverse 
form (from pin*y) from the same root and of the same meaning as DYaIny 
in 2: 25 above, while here the penult has the proper short Qibbuts (— =)— 
(cht) = were they, 119, 2.—(7>2), const. form of my, see 91,9 and Par— 
(M28m), without the article, apparently contrary to the principle laid down 
p. 206, b—(nit2), 101, 2—(mAsm), written defective, and omitting a 4 after 
3, and another after ", plur. fem. of M3147. 

(8) q2oma, Hithp. Part, walking to and Jro, connected with min*.— 
(man> Ieriehh), during the breeze, or at the cooler season, > being put ‘before 
nouns indicative of season or time; see Lex. >. B. 2.—(s2m5), Hithp. 
reflexive, hid himself; verb sing., agreeing with the nearest subject, viz. 
poxn. (9) mB, 144, 3. 5, a; MD, like a verbal suff, see 57, 3. n. 1. 

(10) 4p, object placed first, 142, 1.c—(s7N»), Kal Imperf. of 839 with 
Vav consec., which before & is pointed 1, 22, 1; form of the verb, 68, 1. b. 
—("238) was I, 119, 1.—(sanx1), Niph. Imperf. first pers.; & because the 
next letter excludes the Dagh. forte which would be inserted here in a let- 
ter not Guttural; 1, 22, 1. 

(11) 335, Hiph. Perf. of 733, 65, 2; has told, Pluperf., 124, 2.—(nmsy), 
® in pause.—(‘2m), 4 interrogative, 150, 2.—(s>m1z), regular form of 
Piel from mx, with suff. —(9M>2>), p. 269 at the top.—(7>28 N“khdl), the 
Hholem atibel Inf. shortened by the Maqqeph’s throwing off the accent— 
(s22°2), p. 192 at the bottom.—(m>28), hast thou eaten? 2, 29, 4. a. 

(12) Mmn2, instead of M3n2; for Dagh. forte in m see p. 122, n, 3; Om for 
m, 44, n. 4, b —("a2) = D2, used only with first pers.; apud me = my as- 
sociate.—(81), she, 32, n.6; before the verb, in order to give emphasis, 


APP. | § 3. NoTEs ON GEN. 3: 13—21. 343 


134, n. 2.—("5), > with Dagh. conjune., 20, 2. 1—(5=&"), Imperf. first pers. 
sing. with Vav; & of the root omitied in the first pers., 67, 2. 

(13) Xt H2, Dagh. conjunc., 20, 2. L— (mw), 2 fem. of Perf— (2x8), 
Hiph, Perf. of 8&2, 65, 2; "2 suff., p. 288, A. 

(14) m8s, with Dagh. conjunc., as above-—(75"8), Part. pass——(nmx), 
art thou, 119, 1.—(~>22), 117, 1.—(a2h3), suff. form, with 4-; formation, 
83, No. 3.— (752m), second pers. Kal Imperf. of 725, 68, n. 8—(72"), const. 
form of na"; Acc. of time, 116, 2. 

(15) Ma°%, root 358, contract form for H2"x, 83, No, 2—(n7x), Kal 
Imperf. first pers., from mW; 8, 71, 3—(s15), emphatic by position.— 
(WE1"), Kal Imperf. of 52%; Qamets under the praeform. * dropped, be- 
cause the accent is thrown upon the suff. 7—, 29, 2 and 27, 3.—(¢s4), 
Ace., 116, 83—(2B"2m), second pers. with suff. having > demonst., p. 289, 
B. on the left—(ap>), Ace., 116, 3. 

(16) mann, Inf. abs. of Hiph., from 729, 128, 3. a.— (725282), form, 83, 
No. 15; 5-, fori. suff, p. 289, A; noun in ‘tlie suff. form, Dec, Ill, 91, 3.— 
(425771), F— suff. as before; 4 immutable here, and so the noun is to be 
assigned to Dec. I.; formation like to 83, No, 15.—(77>m), 2 fem. Imperf. 
Kal of 535, 68, 1. a.—(5"22), plur. of j2, p. 182—(3u>N), — fem. suff, 
p. 289, A.—(4npR), suff. form with 5- fem.; formation, 83, IV. 27.— 
(~>u27 yim-shol), Hholem shortened by Maqqeph.—(¥42), fem. suff, p. 289, 
A. The prep. 2 is connected with and modifies the preceding verb, 137. 

(17) 5978, position as predicate, 142, 1. b—(751222), 99, 1.6; or the 
word may be regarded as a compound preposition with a suff, 151, 2; 7 
instead of 9, because of the distinctive accent (’) over it, 29, 4. b.—(m2b2Nn), 
second sing. Imperf., with suff 73—, p. 289, B. on the left, 3 instead of 2, 
10, 2. 1. 6. 

(18) mvoxsm, Hiph. Imperf. 3 fem.; objects before the verb, 142, 1. ¢«— 
(72); in pause, for 7? out of pause, 101, 2; Dativus incommodi. 

(19) mt, const. state of M21, which is of Dec. I. fem., the Tsere being 
impure and immutable because it is derived from 251.—(*"Bs), suff. dual 
from 58, which last is for 528, and the suppressed > appears in the dual 
by a Dagh. forte in the 5, 19, 2. b. n.1; suff. F7—, p. 289, B—(F3"8), Inf. 
with prep. before, and suff. after, 129, 1; translate: until thy return, or until 
thou returnest, 129, 2.— (7372), p. 192, sing. third pers—(nHP>), P for p, 
in pause.—(a9tm), Kal Imperf. 2 sing. of 315. 

(20) man, from 57 to live, therefore 437, producer of life, source of life. 
—(817 hi), 32, n. 6.—("m752), lit. of the whole of the living, or of all living, 
viz. rational beings; “7 in pause, "1 out of it. 

(21) zs, 74, n, 3, d—(nism2), Dec. IIL. fem., from sing. m3m>, plur. 
mi2m2, const. as in the text. —(pw2>"1), Hipb. ‘tq with Vav; ited vow- 
el (3 = "3) retained because of the suff.; see the like in 2: 15; D-, suff, 
p. 288, A. 


he 


344 § 3. NOTES ON GEN. 3; 22—4: 3. [ape. 


(22) jm, 103, 2—(HA), has become, Pluperf. 124, 2.—(7ND), const. 
form, p. 183.—(:222), p. 192.—(n2>), fem. Inf, 45, 2. b, and 68, n. 1; 
>, 100, e—(7B), p. 269, second par.—(‘7>), from 33.—(mp>4), 124, 6. a. 
(ba), 152, 2. a—(S2N1), as before, 124, 6. a—(*M)), Perf. Kal of 4, 
verb 23; synt. as the preceding verbs—(D2>>), ¥ for iD, 7, 2. ¢. 

(23) snnbuiss, Piel Imperf.; > without Dagh. forte, 20,3. c. Rem. ; "= 
suff., p. 288, A; this and the following 9375, both in Piel, denote a thorough 
sending away and expulsion, 51, 2—(nwa ... "WX), 121, 1; whence. 

(24) was, the " without Dagh. forte, as above; Piel, but \ prevents the 
insertion of Dagh. forte in the middle letter, and prolongs the vowel under 
4, 22,5; the (—) of the ultimate is shortened, because the accent is on the 
penult, 29, 3. a.—(jDw51), our located, made to dwell.— ("54 DIP), lit. on the 
part of the front to the garden, ete.—( 72>) may also be translated as Gen., 
113, 2. The circumstance of place immediately after the verb, and before 
the object, 142, 1—(c3:537), plur. with the article distinctive of genus, 
107. See in Tuch’s Comm. all manner of conceits respecting this word; 
also Rosenm. Comm., and Ges. Lex. Comp. Ps. 18: 11. 80: 2. Ezek. 1:10. 
—(295 md), lit. the flame of the sword, — a glittering sword ; 1 art., 107, 
n. 1, b. Our idiom, in the second translation above, rejects the article.— 
(m2pA021), Hithp. Part. of 725; 4, relative demonstrative, 107; ending 
n28— for N2B—- 93, 3; turned itself; our Version: turned every way, is well. 

[My advice to the learner now is, that he would recommence with Gen. 1: 1, and 
carefully review every part of what he has been over, looking again in the Grammar 
for all the solutions of difficulties which he does not recollect. This will tend to fix 
all the principles of analysis and syntax more firmly in his mind, than if he goes im- 
mediately on to the investigation of new ground. If he does this faithfully and thor- 
oughly, he will be enabled to dispense with copious Notes in the sequel; for these three 
.chapters exhibit a great portion of the phenomena in the language, which have re- 
spect either to the orthography, the forms, or the syntax of it. It will be well, more- 
over, after the familiarity which he may now be supposed to have acquired with the 
Grammar, to leave him, more than heretofore, to his own resources. I shall there- 
fore limit myself, in the sequel, mostly to those things which seem to present any dif- 


ficulty, or which serve in a special manner to illustrate principles either of form or of 
syntax. | 


Chap. IV. 

(1) “AM, apoc. of Mn, third fem., 74, n. 3, d—(72m1), id. from 555; 
final Seghol for Tsere, 68, n. 3.—("Ms) with, p. 191, n. 1; like the Greek, 
avy Feo, by divine aid. 

(2) FROM, mh for im, from so", 68, n. 7.—(rtb>), >, p. 190, ¢. 68, 1; 
translate the two words: she again bore, 139, 2.—(*nN), MN, p. 181— 
(5211), in pause, for dait.—(nz), const. form of Part. 132. 1. b. 

(3) ov" yp, at the end of some days, after some time. The absence of 
the article before D%2", gives to it this indefiniteness.—(Mm22), Ace. after 
2°45 circumstances thrown in between the two words, 142, 1,—(nin>), 
see p. 190, 4. Note. 


+ 


APP. | § 3. NorEs on cen. 4: 4—15., 345 


(4) xshnos, he too, he likewise.—{728% tso-nd), contract of j8¥.—(jN2>T194), 
bn suff. form of abn, 91, 2; j4—, suff plur. with Yodh omitted before the 
1, p. 166, n. 1; abstract for concrete, and so we may translate: fatlings of 
them, the }J- referring to \N¥, flock.—(>8>3), from mI, 74, n. 3, a. 

(5) "5, impersonal, from M7, 74, n. 8, a; followed by > pointing out 
the subject of the anger; lit. if was hot to Cain, i, e. matter of anger; see 
134, 2.—(1>853), Kal Imperf. from 32>. 

(6) mad, p. 190, 4—(42 Mh), lit. is it hot to thee; > in pause, 101, 2. 
(7) bn, is there not? 7 interrog., 150, 2; 81> for &>, with a Vav which is 
merely a fulcrum, or sign of long O. 1 fancy, Hiph. Imperf. of 22", 69, 2. 
—(mxv), Inf. fem. of ND, contract form for DX; elevation, i. e. lifting up, 
viz. of the face, which had just been described as fallen—(nne>), > with 
the vowel of the article ; translate: at the door sin [is] a lier-in-wait ; for 725 
is a participial predicate =a noun, 144, n. 2, and therefore need not con- 
form in gender to m8unm. This last word is a contract form for MRUN, 
fem. Segholate.—(inpxtin), { mase. suff, in reference to 735. 

(8) axes, prob. told [it], viz. what the preceding verse contains; for the 
at is frequently omitted after this verb; told it, so as to simulate friendly 
colloquy.—(nm7"72), with prep. 2 and suff. 5, Inf. of nen, 129, 2.— 
(OPT vdy-yd gom), 71, n, 4.—{>x) against = >, Lex. A. 3.—(479777"4) , 62, 
3, for vowels; 5n— suff, p. 288, A. . 

(9) "8, 147, 5.—I know not, Pres., 124, 3.—("”2t3), the keeper (5 interrog.) 
am 12 "238. (10) 27, const. pl. of B3, Dee. IL. For the use of the plur., 
106, 2.—{e"pzs), Part. plur., in which the Part. conforms to the plur. 25, 
instead of >ip.—(">x), like the plur. with suff, ~, p. 193, Examp. 

(11) M25NA-72, either in a compar, way: more than the earth, or, more 
probably, it is a constructio pregnans, 138, where the verb of departure is im- 
plied, e. g. 2", [thou shalt go away] from this land—(nnx®), 3 fem. Perf. 
of nzp.—(nnp>), > prep. HIP Inf. of mp2, 65, n. 2A—(77"9), 2 prep.; 7, 
29, 4. b. 

(12) "2, when, see Lex.—yjon), 2 sing. Hiph. apoc. Imperf. of 507; F for 
‘in —(nn), contracted Inf. for m2, 19, 2.n. 1; from jm2, 65,1; this and the 
preceding verb together to be seaiciade shall no more yield, 139, 1. 

(13) "25> >¢vd-ni, from 752 Sd-von, with suff—{Nivya), 2... D358, greater 
than, 117, 1; siv2 Inf. const.; render: endurance, 129, 1. 

(14) muna, Piel, \ excludes Dagh. forte, and lengthens the preceding 
vowel, 22, 5.—{77ox), Niph. Imperf. first pers.; Seghol in &, 50, n. 4.— 
("83%2), Part. as a noun with We 132, 2. 

(15) 43 422, p. 266, e—(DIn22), p. 185, n. 1.—{p") in pause; Hophal Im- 
perf. of DP2, 65, 2; as to the (), see 52, n. 9; he shall be avenged, i. e. Cain, 
see v. 23; or if the verb is applied to the slayer, then render: he shall suffer 
vengeance.—(Dv>5), Hiph. Imperf. with Vav, tone retracted, and (—) of the 


ultimate shortened.—("M>3>), p. 269, at the top.—(nizn), Inf. Hiph. of m3. 
44 


346 §.3. NoTES ON GEN. 4: 16—26. , ea 


Acc., 116, L 1. (37) 1, 68, n. riper “nn), see in y. Lm "7), 
and % built, 131, 2. c.—{ ‘25), from 42 with suff. 

(18) ‘tba , Niph. Imperf. with 5 from >", 68, 2.—(W3"P-my) Acc., seem- 
ingly Nom. to the verb before it; but see 140, 1. a. (19) "My, const. dual 
of Dome, p. 183.—(nv32), irreg. plur. of MEN, p. 182, at the top. 

(20) "ax, const. form of 38, p. 181.—(a¥5), generic; translate: of him 
who inhabits tents, 135, 3. e—{53>24), and [the father] of herdsmen, mp2 
herd, generic, and this is used as concrete; or if this be not allowed, then 
translate : of herd-keeping. 

(21) "S5 via, lit. @ sharpener of every culting instrument of brass or copper. 
—(mims:) const. form, see p. 181. (28) 5224, apoc. form of Imper., 46, 
n, 3.—(721N17) Hiph. Imper. hortative, 48, 3; the 2 of the root is contained 
in the Dagh. forte inserted in >; the M32- is plur, fem, ending. —({"2355), 
with prep. and suff, from 238; for 5 with Hhireq, instead of © the normal 
pointing, see p. 174, par. 1, 2 at the top. —("n7aM>), > prep. ; oman sing. 
ground form; formation, 83, IV. 27. For the numbers at the close of the 
verse, see pp. 183, 185; seventy and seven; the reverse, as to the order of the 
composite numbers, is general in the older Hebrew, p. 185, second par. 
Here the later order is observed. [Is it poetic license? for the passage is 
poetry]. A great disagreement of opinion has existed, in respect to the 
meaning. I would translate thus: Although ["D, Lex. 6, e.) I have slain a 
man to my wounding, and a youth to my harm (lit. stripes); yet truly ("> , Lex. 
6, c.) Cain shall be avenged seven-fold ; Lamech, then, (rp2b , P. 278, d.) seventy 
times seven. That is: ‘ Although I have exposed myself to wounds by the 
slaughter of a young man, yet if any one kills me for this, I shal] be entitled 
to much greater vengeance than was promised to Cain, in case he should 
be slain.’ In this way all is plain and applicable. In other words, he inti- 
mates that his guilt in killing is far less than that of Cain; but he does not 
tell us why. 

(25) sas, Imperf. Kal with 1; which shows that this mode of narration 
may be employed at the beginning of a new transition or paragraph. The 
connection (126 b, 1), in such cases, is of events, and of the general purpose 
of the narration; see p. 238, second par.—(">), because, implies the verb 
man, said she after it; as the quotation of her words show.—("7), form 
with Dagh. implicitum, which is excluded by the m, 22, 1. e. g—("D), here 
in its original meaning, Lex. "5, A. = "x, and to be joined with the 
suff, of 1397, and then rendered whom ; the voth is in the suff. form; see 
in Par, p. 292, 3 masc. sing.—{j"p), in pause. 

(26) xan pa, to him likewise, was born, etc., 119, 3, It specializes the nar- 
ration.—{(>m171), Imperf. Hoph. of db; there was a beginning, coeptum est, 
134, 2. 


ApP.| §3. NoTEs on GEN. 5: 1—6: 2. 347 


[The following chapter it will require but a slight effort to read. Its value to the 
student, viewed simply in the light of grammatical study, consists mainly in leading 
him to a knowledge of Hebrew idiom with regard to numbers. The repetition of 
numbers is so frequent, and the whole lies within so small a compass, that the 
learner will do well to become familiar with the words of this nature and their pecu- 
liarities, by a faithful study of the whole.] 


Chap. V. 


(1) misbim, genetic histories or genealogies.(X"2), Inf. in the Gen., 129, 
nO: pany the subject of it, 130, 25 lit. in the day of God’s creating man. 
(2) oxn2, with suff b=; form of the verb with suff., 58, 2—(p2t 3), fromny, 
in suff faba —({ox 755), Niph. Inf with suff. ; lit. of the being created of tal, 
i. e. of their being created, 129, 1. b. 

(3) x2, const. of Hx, p. 185, fourth par. from top; synt. 118, 1. a, ad 
fin. This word is treated like the units 2—10, see 118, 1 seq.; and so M78, 
the sing. of the noun is used afier D°>u, 118, 3—(33%"1), Hiph. Imperf. 
with 45, and ultimate vowel shortened by a removal of the tone. 

(4) inn, Hiph. Inf, with prep. and suff, 129, 1, from 755; lit. after his 
begetting, but to be expressed by after he begat, 129, 2—Eight hundreds as 
to year, 8 takes the plur. M82, 118, 2; as to 428, virtually the rule is in 118, 
3. 

(5) on, Perf. of *m, verb Ayin doubled—(n28 new>wh), 30 as to year, 
118, 2. (6) o°2W, plur. after Bm, 118, 2.—(mx2), const. state, 118, 1. a. 
(9) AIS ovwM, 90 as to year, 118, 2. 

(22) 5 bane, Hithp. Imperf. with 1; walk with God, means to follow him 
as the rene to have familiar intercourse with him; comp. 1 Sam. 25: 15, 
Ps. 35: 14. 

(24) srs}, and he was not, i. e. was no more extant among the living; 
see NX, p. 268. The suffix constitutes the subject of the verb. 

(29) sven, Piel Imperf. with suff. "2—, 59, n. 4.—(swy7"2) , Mvz2, Dec. 
TX, with suff, 32— which causes the final letter with its preceding cone to 
fall away; see in Par. C—(jia82°25), const. of }ia82, formation in 83, 
No. 15.—{72), on account of—{7779x), Piel of "7%, long vowel before the 
“, 22,5; (—) under the “, 10, 2. note, 1. a; see also 59, n. 4. 

(32) 43, const. form of j2; the son of 500 years, is the Hebrew mode of 
designating age. 


Chap. V1. 

(1) “M) = xad éyéveto of the N, Test.; the usual mode of transition from 
one paragraph or subject to another. (nn) , Hiph. Perf, of 55m, see 66, 5. 
—(355), > prep.; 25, Kal Inf. of 325, 66, n. 2—("754), Pual, plur. (2) 

ANT, Imperf. of ne (27), fem., they were, 119, 2.—(nn>), Jor themselves, 

Dat. commodi—{*7"3) i in pause. See, in the Commentaries, the great di- 

versity of opinion respecting the meaning of the sons of God; who are re- 
* 


348 _§35. NoTEs on GEN. 6: 3—13. [apr. 


presented (1) As angels; the whole book of Enoch is built on this supposi- 
tion, which shows that the opinion is very old. (2) The descendants of 
Seth. (3) Magistrates, nobles, etc.; for these are called DITPN in Ex. 22: 
28. Ps. 82: 6. As the sons of Israel means Israelites, so the sons of Elohim, 
may mean princes, magistrates, in the same way. The passage, in its con- 
nection, seems to my mind like a description of the mingling of the chiefs 
or heroes with the Cainitae, i. e. the progeny of Cain. Where, in all the 
O. Test., is there a hint of such an absurd thing, as the mingling of the an- 
gelic and the human in sexual intercourse >—{ji7"), Imperf. of 455, a long 
controverted word; the passage probably means: My Spirit shall not always 
be humiliated, or vilely treated, by man, etc.; where spirit appears to mean 
the breath of life given by Jehovah, see 2: 7. Job 33: 4. 27: 3, 34: 14. In 
other words: This divine part shall be withdrawn.—(033), not ‘W for "Ex, 
as most have taken it; for then the pointing must be Dawa, but 3 prep. ; 
38 Inf. of 538, 66, n. 3; D+ suff. plur., referring to D3N generic, which of 
course occasions, in order to pronounce it, the Dagh. forte in the 4; trans- 
late: In their erring or wandering.—("'v2 N17), he is flesh, i. e. carnal, fleshly 
inclined ; as cagé in the N, Test—(5"1}), 1 and yet, or but yet, p. 278, b; 
sentiment: ‘God, being merciful, will give him ample space for repentance 
and reformation.’ 

(4) mo>ben, arto, p. 286,b; 5 for °D; for meaning, see Lex.; that of 
Jallers on = praedatores, raptatores, énunintovtes, seems most consonant with 
the text; and falls in well with etymology, if we make >B3 the stem, and 
take the meaning 2. d. in Lex.—(ninn), synt. of the art. in 109, 2. The se- 
quel runs thus: and also, after it was so that the sons of God went in, etc., or 
afterwards when the sons, etc.; for “tx will bear either rendering; see Lex. 
B. 1, or B. 5.—(7a), the same were, 119, 2—(n"555), art. as in BX>Ern 
above.—(nun), of name, i. e. of renown ; for the art., p. 206, c. 

(5) 29, const. of nz4.—(niatin), const. plur. of mazn2.—(i2>), with 
Dagh. forte in 3, because the stem is 23, e. g. 225, as in the other form; 
see 25 in Lex.—Only evil all the day, i. e. evil constantly, or at all times. 
(6) ories, Imperf. of Niph., impersonal ; it repented, 134, 2; or rather, Jeho- 
vah repented, that, etc., 50, 2. a. In the same way: He grieved himself at his 
heart, Hithp. of the verb being reflexive. (7) Mry2s, first pers. sing. Imperf. 
of m2 (24 DIN’), lit. from man to beast, to reptile, etc.; i. e, these being 
taken inclusively—("r2m2), Niph.; Piel has the same form, but usually a 
different sense. The 3 radical is dropped here, 65, 2. 

(9) Bean pax, both adjectives qualifying Ux, \ between omitted, 152, 
I. a—(71N573), written defective twice ; among his generations, i. e. contem- 
poraries, a secondary but frequent sense of "1.—For the rest of the verse, 
see in 5; 24. 

(11) mens, Niph. Imperf. with 1.—(o%2m), Acc., 135, 3.5. (12) Hanwa, 
Niph. Perf. 3 fem. in pause. (18) "28>, before me, like plur. with suff., 101, 

e 


APP. | § 3. NOTES ON GEN, 6: l4—7: 7. 349 


3.—("227)), i.e. 9) lo! with a verbal suff; behold [—(nm"me2), Hiph. 
Part. with suff. ; synt. 131, 1—({mx), with, p. 191, at the top. 

(14) "x2, const. pl. of y2; pl. because of the quantity required, 106, 2.— 
np, Acc. pl. of jp; lit. nests = cells, small separate lodging-places ; the dou- 
ble Acc, here, 132, 2.—n732), as a compound prep., 151, 2; and j5m3 the 
same.—("522), with the art., p. 206, b. (15) nti, and this is, like xin .— 
After Max , (Acc. of measure, 116, 3), lit. 300 as to cubit, the verb shall be is 
of course implied—(mam4 rébh-bah), suff. state of am4, Dec. VL FH, 
p. 289, A. 

(16) “ns, light, or as a collective here, lights; which were to be only one 
cubit high, as the sequel shows. —(n:2=n), Piel Imperf. of 422, with suff, 
m—, p. 289, 4. on the left—(m>22>%), 151, 2, comp. with 7 and » , prep.— 
(a3), suff. form of 4%; for ¥ with Hhireq, see 9}, 8. Bina _(ornnn, etc.), 
all three composed of adjectives in the plural, = lower apartments, seconds, 

thirds, i. e. of three stories, or a three-decker. 

(17) "2275, behold J, is designed to give intensity and solemnity to the de- 
elaration that follows—(x7272), Hiph. Part. of X3.—(31225), from 33, 
and in its formation, the (") appears to assimilate, and is expressed in the 
2 with Dagh. forte, so that it may be classed virtually with forms in 83, 
No. 14.—(nnw>), Piel Inf, 63, 3—(nnma), 151, 2.—(2192), with 5 a regu- 
lar consonant, and in pause. 

(18) mapiti, orthography, 8, 4; Hiph. from 55p; synt. 124, 6. a—{Fmx) 
in pause ; for Sorry p- 191, top. (19) "m5, generic, with the article, p. 
206, b.—(n=nn>), Inf. Hiph. of H74; 1 omitted after *, (see the last word 
in this verse); to keep or save alive. 

(21) mp, 65, n. 2. (22) 3D just so, giving intensity to the designation of 
obedience. 


Chap. VII. 

(1) 4M&, thee, object placed first, to make it emphatic.—(""32), among 
this generation, 3 like év in Greek. (2) MZ32W MF3U, distributively, 106, 4, 
in remarks, and 119, 5.—{imdx} Ux), here for male and female.—({d723) two, 
i. e. by pairs. (3) mi*m>, Piel Inf. of mon, to keep alive. : 

(4) car, after days, so > before time, Lex. >, B. 2, c—{n5p%n), article 
with Dagh. forte omitted, 20, 3.6; Bp. from pip is an unique form. (5) 
amis, Piel of mix, with suff. in—. 

(6) d:22m, usually joined with the following D2, as though the latter 
were Gen. and the former in the const. state. But the article before the 
former disproves this, 109, 1, as also the position of 0% after the verb; 
consequently, to render the passage literally, we must say: 4nd the flood 
was, waters over the earth, the latter clause being in apposition with the first, 
and explicative of its extent. 

(7) N33, sing. number, while several subjects follow, 144, 1; more briefly, 
the verb agrees with its nearest subject ; an occurrence not unusual in Latin 


350 § 3. NOTES ON GEN. 7: S—8: 3. ». [apr. 


and Greek, (8) M22"8 "GN, the “wx and suff. 2— make the relative which, 
121, 1; the ["§ = was not. (9) Dwg oI, 18, 5. 

(10) rsaw, 4 after, see in v.43; the numeral in the const. state, 118, 1. a; 
lit. after a heptade of days.—("24), const. form of O25; 5 — then, continua- 
tive, 152, I. B. 1. (J1) “hs mavin, lit. in the year of 600 as to year {Acc.) 118, 
4.—("="5), lit. in respect to the life of Noah, etc.; or it may be rendered as 
a Gen., of the life, etc. ; 113, 2. b or d.—(24N2), > with the article-vowel, and a 
sign of the Gen. here, as above.—(ni232), const. plur. of fem. form, from 
7372 .—(n2s1), noun of Pilel formation, 83, III. 21; prob. it means cata- 
racts.—("70 33), in pause; Niph.; were opened, let loose. 

(12) nvan, the copious shower, like to the thunder shower, and so it takes 
the article. (13) bx32, 122, 2.n.3; lit. rendered, the whole phrase runs 
thus: On that self-same day.—{mvi>wa), const. form, p. 183, and 118, 1. a; 
lit. thus: A trio of the wives of his sons.—(DMx), with them, 101, n. 1. (14) 
5)27>D, usually rendered: of every wing, as in the Gen.; this may be done, 
see 104, 1, but it is better to regard it as in apposition with the preceding 
noun: every winged creature. 

(16) ooxam), Nom. absolute ; lit. as to those which entered ree male and fe- 
male of all flesh [i. e. of every kind of beast] entered in; for case abs., see 
143, 2.—(ink) , him, i. e. Noah.—(1533), behind him, 151, 1. a. (17) axe, 
Kal Imperf. of 8&2 with 5; Dagh. forte omitted in &, 20, 3. ¢. Retake. 
(nami vdt-td-rom), Kal Imperf. of 5°", with tone retracted by the 5, and so 
the ultimate is shortened from 76m into rém. 

(18) = 72m, Kal Imperf. of 934, see 68, n. 8. (19) Ska tho, 148, a. 
(15254), Pual Imperf. with 5, from 702; Dagh. forte omitted in the (5), 2 
3. ¢. Rem.—(o"17), plur. of “i; art. with 4, 35, 2. B. a. (20) oe oi as 
to cubit upward; 28, as usual, in the Kee 116, 3. (21) In the three 
words beginning with 2, 3, 3, all these have the article-vowel; for the use 
of it, see p. 206, b—(y7ui), this, as well as the preceding wa5n, illus- 
trates the true nature of the so called article before participles, i. e. such in- 
stances show that it is a relative demonstrative—{D3N4 55), generic = all 
the human race, or all mankind. 

(22) "41 >5, all whose breath of the spirit of life [was] in his nostrils.— 
(3973), on the dry land; 3 with the art. vowel.—(1r3), verb midd. E, Inf. 
mia, see 71, n. 1. (23) mass, apoc. Imperf. of Kal from mr, 74, n. 3, a.— 
(paps), see in v. 4.—(sr7a"), Niph. Imperf. of Hrv2.—("xv")) Niph. Imperf., 
with tone retracted, and the ultimate (—) shortened; and there was left. 
(24) ois mye, lit. a hundred of day, or a hundred as to day, 118, 1. a. 


Chap. Vill. 
hiss 2, 66, 3 and 5, Par. G. 3 satis, Imperf, of Nie aa na, 
p. 28, paar jm), Inf. abs. 128, n. 3; — continually retreating.— 
("ort4), Kal, 62, 2, comp. 3 in e. g—{¥p2), const. form of MEP, Dec. 
IX.; 2 without its Dagh. forte in the P, 20, 3. 5. 


APP.| § 3. NoTEs on GEN. 8: 4—22., 351 


(4) mani, 3 fem. Imperf. Kal of m3, 71, n. 4 at the close.—(wh>), of the 
month, 113, 2. d—("3), const. plur.; either a mountain-ridge consisting of 
several prominences, or it may refer to the greater and lesser Ararat; or 
perhaps the name is that of the region; see in Lex. (5) id) 3%>n, Inf. 
abs., see in v. 3; continually turning back.—("""w23), 2 with Dagh. lene al- 
though preceded by a vowel, on account of the pause-accent before it, 121, 
1, and of course the 2 here begins a clause, 21,1; 23 with art. vowel; on 
that tenth [month], on the first of the month, i. e. first day; just like our bra- 
chylogy in English; w3n>, 113, 2. d—{ax72), Niph. of mx7, were seen.— 
("eN4), without article, 109, 1. 

(7) aw Nizs, 128, 3! b; continually going and returning. (8) mint, the 
dove, (and so the raven in v. 6), where the article serves to distinguish from 
other species of birds.—(imN’9), lit. from within, 151, 2—{2}ph), i interrog., 
150, 2; in indirect questions (as here), p. 271, third par, ; sD, Kal Perf. 
from >2p, 66, 3. (9) m>29, suff. form of 39, having the fem. suff. ==.— 
(sum) véit- td-shobh) , apoc. pate with Vav, and ultimate vowel (long 6) shor- 
tened.(np")), 66, n. 2; 4-, suff. 

(10) Sms, from 55 or 53m, Imperf. Kal 5°, and then the apoc. form 
with 3, as in the word before us, the final vowel (—) being shortened by the 
tone retracted to the penult. So Gesenins; others put this form in Hiphil 
of the same stem. Meaning here, see in No.7 in Lex.—(501"4), 68, n. 7— 
(mbw), 64, 1c. (11) mby, const. form of n>9, Dec, IX. 

(12) Sze3, Niph. Tapeff of >mz, here treated as a regular verb, with 4 
and a praefor mative (*), which receives the Dagh. forte that follows the 5 
The rest is regular; final short syllable, because the tone is penult ; see 68, 
n. 5.—(398 MOA), p. 256, n. 1; she returned no more. (13) HUN IZ, on the 
Jirst [day], 96, in e. g. (16) xx, 68, 1, Imper. from Ns. (17) RzI0, Im- 
per. Hiph. of xs>, in which the * radical is restored and regularly pointed. 
The marginal reading (Qeri) bids us write and read 83°77; which is equally 
remote from common usage. Meaning: cause to go forth—{12 , 172 , 1374), 
the first two in Imper. Piel, i. e. are intensive forms of the verbs, and very 
significant here. As to 5274, it is Perf. Kal with 4, and is thus placed in 
the same predicament as the other preceding verbs, 124, 6. c. 

(19) pimnhewa , > prep.; O4— plur. suff; from nmpv2. (20) boss, p. 
140, n. 3, d—{rd3), plur. from nbs, and written defective as to both vow- 
els, (21) mati, Hiph, Imperf. of m5, 71, n. 7.—(nnn), from m3, forma- 
tion, 83, IV. 31; odour of delight = a sweet savour—(508) , Hiph. Imperf. of 
209; for s7oiN the full form, 8, 4.—(>), is evil, 141. —(""93772), 2 with 
Dagh. forte = 2; suff. form of plur. O23, 106, 2. a. (22) sar, [there 
shall be] seed-time, 141. According to the accents, the first clause ends with 
mom}, which has Tebhir (p. 42, Ill. 12) on it. The rest connects thus: And 
day and night shall not cease.—{3n2%), penult long vowel in pause, 24, 4, b. 


302 § 4. NOTES ON THE PSALMS. [apr. 


§ 4, 
Notes on some of the Psalms. 


The poetry of the Hebrews has characteristics which are peculiar, and which wide- 
ly distinguish it, in some respects, from the poetry of the western world. So far as 
any One has yet been able to discover, the Hebrews had no knowledge of what we 
call quantity, or syllabic measure as employed in the construction of poetic verses. 
Many attempts have been made, since the revival of Hebrew study in Europe, to 
discover something of the Grecian and Roman measure in the poetry of the Scrip- 
tures; but none have met with the desired success. Men of different nations, of 
extensive learning, and of great enthusiasm for Hebrew study, have made these 
fruitless attempts. It has indeed been affirmed by Jerome and others in ancient 
times, and by critics of no small reputation in modern times, that the poetry of the 
Old Testament displays all the rich variety of Greek and Latin measure; and that 
one may find there the heroics and lyrics of the West, not only in respect to spirit, 
but even in regard to form: 

Every attempt however to discover them, has failed to produce any general con- 
viction of their real existence, in the minds of those who are acquainted with orien- 
tal studies; and it isnow a matter of almost universal accord, that the characteristics 
which distinguish Hebrew poetry, are principally the following: viz. (1) A kind of 
rhythmical conformation of oriyot or distichs. (2) A parallelism of the same in re- 
gard to sentiment. (3) A figurative, ornate, parabolic style. (4) A diction in some 
respects peculiar. 

In regard to the first of these characteristics, the measure of syllables, i. e. their 
length or brevity as it regards what is called quantity, is not concerned; at least it is 
not, as has been already said above, discoverable by us. The terms rhythmical con- 
formation, here employed, are designed only to mark a conformation in general, as to 
the respective length of lines and the number of syllables, in two corresponding oriyou 
or distichs. This is the most general of all the distinguishing features of Hebrew 
poetry. The exactness does not, indeed, correspond with that observed in English 
rhyme. But still, it is so general, and so considerable, as to force the observation of 
it upon every reader, who has any powers of discernment. 

The second characteristic, viz. parallelism, applies to the correspondence of senti- 
ment. ‘This sentiment may be either the same, (or the same with only a slight varia- 
tion in the diction, or the thought, or in both,) and then the distich consists of two 
parallel passages, in the usual sense of the word parallel, as well as in a poetic sense ; 
or the sentiment in one oriyo¢ may be an antithesis to that which is contained in the 
other, the antithetic correspondence being plainly a matter of design and calculation ; 
or lastly, there may be nothing more than a correspondence in the length of the ori- 
xot,and a general sameness of design, without either a synonymous or antithetic 
sense in the members of the distich. To produce examples of all these would be 
very easy; but it would be out of place here. I refer the reader, for ample satis- 
faction in respect to this whole subject, and that he may acquire a right and ade- 
quate understanding of it, to Bishop Lowth’s celebrated and admirable Lectures on 
Hebrew Poetry, in particular Lect. XVUI—XX.; or (to what in some respects is still 
more satisfactory) to his Preface to the Translation of Isaiah. He may also consult 
De Wette, Commentéir ither den Psalmen, Einleit. § 7; Gesenius’ Chrestomathy, in his © 
introduction to the poetical part; and other writers, who have composed introductions 
to the Hebrew Scriptures. 

In regard to the third characteristic of Hebrew poetry, it is common, in some re- 


APP. ] § 4. NOTES ON THE PSALMS. 309 


spects, to the poetry of all languages. A diction figurative, elevated, remote from 
the vulgar one, and abounding in comparisons, is almost of course the characteristic 
of all poetry, which exhibits any striking display either of feeling or of imagination. 
But the Hebrew poetry, (whichis in a peculiar sense the offspring of feeling), abounds 
to an uncommon degree in these characteristics. 

The peculiar diction of Hebrew poetry is displayed in the choice of words; in the 
meaning assigned to them ; and in the forms which it gives to them. 

(a) The choice of words, Thus 8328 instead of 55x, man; MON instead 
of N12, to come ; M52 instead of "27, word ; DIP instead of D242, former 
time ; DNF instead of Dv2, water. 

(b) The meaning of words. E. g. "°28 strong for God; “"2% strong for 
bull ; MI"M the only, the darling, for life ; 5°" Joseph, for the nation of Israel, 
elc. 


(c) The forms of words. E. g. iby instead of pnb, God ; 513 instead 
of 5775, to be; D223 instead of bvaz, nations ; Mi2y instead of D725, years ; 
mit instead of nv27, days ; *272 instead of ja, from; ]>17 instead of 52", 
he will go. 

(d) In poetry, several grammatical forms are peculiar. E. g. paragogic 
is suffixed to nouns in the absolute state; i—and *— are suffixed to nouns 
in regimen; 72— suffix is used instead of D— them, their ; 3°— and “H1- in- 
stead of ""— his; “25— fem. instead of ‘j>— thine ; jp- and “= plur. instead 
of Bp . 

In other respects too, poetic usage gives peculiar liberty. The conjugations Piel 
and Hithpael are sometimes used intransitively ; the apocopated future stands for the 
common future; the participle is often used for the verb; and anomalies in respect 
to concord, ellipsis, etc., are more frequent than in prose. 

The design of this brief sketch is principally to awaken in the student a desire to 
make himself acquainted with this deeply interesting subject, and to direct him where 
he should go to obtain the requisite knowledge in question. To pursue the topic 
here, would be premature and outof place. Nor is it necessary, since the learner can 
hardly fail to procure at least some of the authors, who have been mentioned above 
as treating of the subject before us. 

It may be proper to add, that while I have almost entirgly adhered to the oriyou 
marked by the accents, so far as the Chrestomathy goes, yet it is not from any con- 
viction of obligation to do so, on the ground of any real authority in the accentuation. 
It is now settled to the satisfaction of nearly if not quite all critics, that the appara- 
tus of vowels and accents took its rise after the fifth century. But that the inven- 
tors of the accents had a profound knowledge of the Hebrew tongue, will not be called 
in question by any good Hebrew scholar ; and therefore, as guides in the business of 
ascertaining the limits of the respective oriyor, the accents are worthy of hearty com- 
mendation. I would urge the student to acquire a familiar knowledge of all such as 
serve in the quality of pause accents; among which, those which regulate the parallel 
lines are specially to be mentioned. 


[That the book of Psalms consists of poetry, none will deny; for the very nature 
of the book demands this. It is much to be regretted, therefore, that in the arrange. 
45 


304 § 4. NoTEs on psaum 1: 1, 2. [aPP. 


ment of it, it has not generally been printed in the form of poetry, i. e. each otiyoc or 
parallelism in a line by itself. Jahn, in his edition of the Heb. Bible, has made such 
an arrangement; and so, in the small and beautiful Hebrew Bible, printed at Leipsic 
by Tauchnitz, and prefaced by Rosenmueller. However, any one who will pay 
even a little attention to the distinctive accents, will find them employed everywhere 
to mark the orivor. Some of the accents, as the Table of them in § 15 will show, 
belong exclusively to poetry, i.e. to those books which the Masorites deemed to be 
poetic, viz. Psalms, Job, and Proverbs. A. very little attention to these will enable the 
student to avail himself of the judgment of the Masorites, as to the proper division of 
the oriyov, and as to the intimate connection of words with each other; a judgment, 
which, although not infallible, is mostly well-grounded and enlightened. 

For the rest, I must again advertise the learner, that I am not acting the part of a 
commentator, in the following Notes. My present business is that of a yrammarian. 
It will be well, indeed, if the student is prepared, when he gets through with this 
Chrestomathy, to commence what may properly be called exegetical study. He must 
lay a foundation, before he can erect the superstructure. In a review of what he has 
gone over, he may begin the consultation of Commentaries. The present Notes are 
not designed to supersede them, or to supply the place of them in regard to matters 
appropriately belonging to them.] 


Notes on Psalm I. 

(1) S*Nt "Tes, the first is const. plur. form of Wy; lit. O felicitates viri! 
we translate, ad sensum, by Happy the man, ete.—(U7Nn), with the article, 
because of the specifications which follow.{mx22), 3 prep., vowel, p. 190, 
a; const. form of mxz, Dec. II. fem. ; formation from yor, 84, TT 10.— 
(B"Xen), form, 83, 6.—(V2), in pause—{3¥234), 1 omitted after 2; forma- 
tion, 84, HI. 14; in const. form.—(n°x>), participial from v2; 84, IV. 2, 
comp. 71, n, 1,—{235), in pause. The reader will observe the Merka Mah- 
pakh (poetic accent) on pst , the Athnabh on 333, and the Sillug on 3w>; 
thus marking the three otizou of the verse. By far the greater proportion 
of verses, however, have but two otiyou; and then the first has an Athnahh 
at its close, in a great majority of cases; but sometimes a Merka Mahpakh, 
e. g. Ps. 1: 2, 3: 3, etc. Instead of this last, some of the greater Distinctives 
are occasionally employed in marking the first of three otizor; e. g. Rebhia, 
Ps, 2: 2, 8, 12. 3:8. 4:2. 5:3, 9,* al.; also Tiphha initial, as abs, Ps. 4: 
3, ete. 

(2) OX "2D, particles of contrast, but explained in a great variety of ways. 
Simply thus: but, vf, i. e. (if the brachylogy he filled out), but [happiness to 
him], if (D8) he does what is described in the sequel. In other words, so 
as to give the simple order of the whole course of thought: ‘Happy in case 
he does not do so and so, but [happy] in case (2% if) he delights, ete. ; see 
p. 281, i—{is8r), for with Seghol, see p. 174, 2.—(H35%), Kal Imperf. of 
23; for m3 (Seghol), see p. 118, second par. at the top; syut., 125, 2, re- 





* Rosenmueller, overlooking the Rebhia in these last two cases, has evidently ar- 
ranged the parallelisms wrongly, in the small and excellent Heb. Bible mentioned 
above. And so elsewhere, at times. 


APP. | § 4..NoTES on PsaLM 1: 3—6. 359 


specting the Imperf. as designating an habitual state—The two following 
words are used adverbially ; syllable °> in pause. 

(3) MrT}, 124, 6. a.—{y25), 5 after a distinctive accent on the preceding 
syllable ; omission of the article which is usually required after > (107, 3, 
n. !), occasioned by the sequel making the word definite; ib. second par.— 
(or2—h>p), an illustration of the effect of Maqqeph in constituting two words 
as one. Here the compound accent, Merka Mahpakh, is put on both words, 
the Merka on 5% and the Mahpakh on 7328; i. e. they are treated as one 
word ; 2 in pause; for the last member of a double accent marks the tone, 
i. e. the left hand accent is, in this case, on the tone-syllable of the com- 
pound word. Probably these double accents were first invented, as one 
means of pointing out the intimate connection of words.—(i""5), see Par. 
VI. 1, p. 171.—("m22), with prep. and suff, from my, Dec. VIII, probably 
contracted from M32, 19, 2. b, n. 1; so that the Dagh. forte in the suff. form 
is compensative, being the expression of the suppressed t.—(tm>24), M29 
with suff. Dec. IX, 91, 9. Rem.—(>24), Kal Imperf. of 522; the + here is a 
mere fulcrum or sign that a long O is needed; for the vowel is mutable. 
So oftentimes.—(155 55%), simply: All that he will do, shall prosper.—(">3") , 
Hiph. in a simple intransitive sense, like Kal, 52,2; or the clanse may be 
rendered: ‘All that he shall do, will he manage prosperously, or make to pros- 
per;’ thus retaining the proper meaning of the verb in Hiphil. Some apply 
this clause to the tree spoken of before, as prosperously maturing its fruit; 
a possible construction, but not probable, for it would be merely a repetition 
of the preceding sentence. 

(4) Not so the wicked ; where, after D»sY"4, the verb sm7>x5 is to be men- 
tally supplied—{5x “5), virtually as before; i> is to be mentally supplied 
after ">, and then we have it thus: bud [as] if like the chaff, which, etc.; a 
simple solution of the meaning.—(722), for v2, 8, 4; with the article, p. 
205, a.—{3i— .. . YN), which, 121, 1.—(3253m), Imperf. Kal of 552; with 
suff. 5:—, p. ‘289, B. on the left; verb fem., agreeing with m4. 

(5) vo-b9, lit. on account of so, — because that, p. 280, d; introducing a 
reason for the preceding assertion —(v822), with art., and therefore lit. 
in the judgment, i. e. in the acknowledged judgment of God in respect to 
the wicked; generic, most probably, comprising any and all judgment.— 
(B°NzIT}), nor (4) sinners, the N> of the preceding clause, with its verb, is 
implied after 1. If supplied we should translate: 4nd sinners shall not 
stand ; as it is, in order to give the same sense, we must render 4 by nor.— 
The three words, ungodly—sinners—righteous, (and the same in the next 
verse), are all here anarthrous; for the idea is not simply one collected total- 
ity, but that of some, any, or all of each class; which indefinite form of ex- 
pression demands the omission of the article. 

(6) sai", 131, 2. a. More than mere knowledge intellectual is here in- 
tended; knoweth — recognizes as friends, i. e. the righteous are the Lord’s 


306 § 4. NoTEs on psaLm 2: 1—6. [APp. 


familiar acquaintance, so to speak, or, he takes knowledge of them.—(3}77}), 
metaphorically, manner of life, purpose.—(7aX%m), fem. of Kal Imperf., (473 
is common gender), in Kal, intrans., lit. shall perish, but here, in its applica- 
tion, shall be frustrated, or end in destruction. De Wette: shall lead to destruc- 
tion; good, as to the sense, but hardly close enough to the Kal form of 
verb. It corresponds to Piel. Or possibly the idea is, that the path of the 
wicked will soon end, and they be able to make no more advances. 


Psalm IMI. 


(1) mab , with penult accent, intense form for mab , see under 772 in Lex. 
(275 gé-yim), sing. 2; in plur. one Yodh falls out, so that D5 yim = 
mn"; why do the nations, or the heathen, make an uproar ?—(naN3), plur. of 
BND, from oN>, 83, IIT. 22—(ra3), see in Ps. 1: 2. 

(2) NEI, ‘Hithp,, lit. set themselves up.—(170%3), Perf. Niph. of JD", 
having a SN, sense, i. e. take mutual counsel, 50, 2. b. Both verbs de- 
Signate what is done, or being done, from time to time; synt. of the Imperf, 
125, 2; of the Perf., 124, 3. b—(53), against; see Lex.—(in7w2), suff. 
form of "2, participial noun, Dee, III, 83, No. 5. 

(3) MpPN2, first plur. Piel Imperf., with the hortative 5—, 126, 1—Before 
this, "> is plainly implied, inasmuch as what follows are words quoted. 
—(vanne%), suff plur., from 7047, which has pl. D°— and ni-; i2- 
poetic suff, see p. 289, B— (F>"2uI9), Hiph. Imperf., 1 plur. hortative, as 
above.—(22’2), p. 192, 1 plur.—(7a5naz), const. plur. of May, with suff. 
=, 

(4) a5", Part. pres. — the dweller, or he who dwells; kindred to “ Our 
Father who art in heaven.” One would naturally expect the article here ; 
but poetic license omits it; or, possibly it may be regarded as in the const. 
state, notwithstanding the Beth which follows, see 114, 1, a—(pmw-), A in 
pause; Pattah in the final syllable not in pause, 47, n, 2.—(7258), so pointed 
in order to distinguish it from "25% my master or lord. The syllable *2 is so 
pointed in order to show that it belongs to God, = my Lord in the highest 
sense. The form is plural, but the meaning sing., 106, 2. It is usually de- 
rived from 4°5 to judge, with a formative 8; but Maurer (Comm. on Ps. 35: 
23) suggests, as more probable, the Ar “4295 root "48, fortis, robustus, potens 
Jfuit; in which case the formation is the obvious and common one, viz. by 
adding ji-.—(22>"), Imperf. with Pattah, 47, n. 2—(492), p. 191, a— 
Both of the Imperfect verbs, in the verse, mark habitual action, 125, 2. 

(5) ia>s, plur. ae form of DN, with porte sult, 101, Je CPS), 
ped, 19, 2, n. eae Piel Pere ein suff. (6) "285, yet J which 
contradistinguishes between what the rebels do, and what the Lord has 
done or is doing.—("3>7), my king, i. e. the king whom I have appointed, 
119, 5—("24p—573), the suff. belongs virtually and properly to the first 
neun, 121, 6. 


APP. | § 4. NOTES ON PsaLM 2: 7—2: 2. 307 


(7) MABON, Imperf. Piel, with n= intensive, 48, 3.—(>x), either in re- 
spect to, or secundum, according to; i. e. I will proclaim aloud that which is 
accordant with the tenor of the decree ; the latter now follows.—(Mms) art 
thou, 119, 1.—(n%"), this day; showing the demonstrative power of the ar- 
ticle—(7°M7>%), from 75>, 44, nv. 2. (8) Sx, 63, 2. e. g—(F2mN), Im- 
perf. of jm2, with the 5— intensive.—(7M2m2), m) for m because of the pause, 
29, 4.b; Acc. in apposition with the preceding noun, and explanatory of it. 
—(FnIT8)), formation, 83, No. 32.—(7Ob) const. pl. of O28; Ace. in ap- 
position with the preceding, as before, 

(9) zon, Kal Imperf. of 255, with suff. ; m for m, because the tone is 
thrown forward. —(">62), > as, like not followed by the article here, be- 
cause of the const. state of the noun, 108, 2.—("x7"), a potter; but the omis- 
sion of the article here seems to be the result of poetic license, for in such 
cases the insertion of it is usual in Hebrew; if so here, then — the potter. 

(10) nx232, O kings, Voc.—(s>"221), act prudently or wisely; for such 
a meaning in Hiph., see 52, 2. Rem—(s7055), Imper. of Niph., be ye in- 
structed, or (reflexively) instruct yourselves.—(V7%), in pause; anarthrous 
by poetic license. (11) "51 sb"35, even fear with trembling ; 4 even, 152, 1. A. 
To render 55"3 (Imper. of 573) rejoice, seems inapposite here ; victors rejoice, 
not the vanquished, The palpitation of the heart (salit cor) through fear, is 
the basis of the meaning given above. ‘Thus we have an accession to the 
idea in HNN. 

(12) spw2, Piel Imper.; kiss, viz. in token of subjection and reverence. 
—(73), poetic for j2; the Syriac habitually employs "2.—(777), Ace. of 
manner; after a verb intrans.; as to your designs or efforts, or by reason of 
your conduct ; perhaps in the way or on the way, i. e. prematurely.—(*2), for, 
intioducing the ground of monition—(vz22), > part., 151. f; render the 
whole clause: for shortly will his anger burn. Last line: O felicitates omnis 
confidentis in illo ; or blessed are all of the trusters in him !—("d'n), plur. const. 
of Part. pres. of MoOm.—(‘2), in him, a prep. intervening between the const. 
and the pronoun with which it is connected, 114, 1. a. There is an ellip- 
sis, or rather an eloquent ci@yecc, before the last clause. The course of 
thought is thus: ‘For shortly will bis anger burn; [when it does burn, 
"23" “2] blessed, ete., i. e. they only will be safe. 


Psalm Ul. 


(1) 5195, > auctoris, i. e. > designates the idea of belonging or appertain- 
ing to ; 113, 2, a.—(imn22), Inf. with prep. and suff. ; when he fled, 129, 2; 
see forms of Inf. suff, on p. 292.—(723), suff. form of j2, Dec. VIL (2) 
m2, like the Latin quam, quantopere, how, how much, in the way of exclama- 
tion; Lex. s. v. B. 2.—(73), const plur. of 9¥; "3 for "7, the (=) is suff. 
_(arap ), Part. of psp, used here as a verb, 131, 2, a,—(">3), in pause.— 
(Mss), sth, the double poetic fem. ending, 79, n. 2f—(4 >) with 


358 §4. NoTES on PsaLM 3: 4—4:; 3. _[app. 


see tion: 

(4) 5x2, from 4925, Dec. VIII; formation, 84, II. 14—(.423), around 
(auqt) me.—("7132), suff. form; means either ‘the author of my dignity or 
glory, or else ‘the object of my glorying.’—(o"V25), Part. Hiph. of 555; 
the lifter up of my head ; dispenses with the article, because it is in the const. 
state. (5) "2p, Acc. instrumental, 135, n.3.—(7p8), habitual or oft re- 
peated action, = I call, 125, 4.6, It may be translated as simply future here: 
I will call; but the meaning suggested is preferable, —(7223"), Kal Imperf. 
of m3, with } and suff—("i73), 2 = jo, 22, L—(iw 4p), 119, 6. 

(6) res, Impert. Kal of jx, with 5 and also the intensive H—; tone 
on the penult ; 8 for 8, because of the accent on it—(7mix"~5), Perf. Hiph. 
of VAP ("2255"); lesen with suff. ; in the sense of habitually sustaining, 
125, 4. b. (7) minava, read mé-ri-bh’bhoth), form sui generis; for 129 = 
miaa. The Daghesh is dropped in the form before us, and the two Beths 
written out.—(">3), suff. form of 52 as if a noun in the plur.; in pause. 

(8) map, 48, 5.—("2"win), suff. renders the long form of the Imper. 
Hiph. necessary ; comp. in Par. K, where the 2 fem. and 2 plur. masc., with 
a vowel ending, have the same lengthened form.—(m"37), Hiph. of H232.— 
(smb), > for >, 29, 4. b; Ace. 116, 3.—(*28), const. plur. of 78, Dec. VIIL 
(9) Of Jehovah is salvation, like “vay aie 113, 2; or to Jehovah belongs 
salvation, with > before a Dative, i. e. it is his prerogative to bestow it. The 
art. in MP3s, the salvation, points to that salvation which bas just been 
described ; Dagh. forte left out in (>), 20, 3. b.— (47272), Dagh. lene omit- 
ted in >; the ground-form is M272, Dec. IL. fem., the usual const. is D513 ; 
but in our text the usual > is written >, prohably because of the change of 
tone, 21, 2. d; - in pause, and this even with a conjunctive accent, Mu- 
nahh; which is unfrequent. 

Psalm IV. 

(1) mya, participial noun, form is Part. Piel; the Dagh. forte of the 
art., which would normally be in %, is omitted, 20, 3. b; and that the arti- 
cle belongs here, is evident from the Pattah under the 5. For meaning, 
see Lex. (2) "N71p3, Inf with prep. 3 and a suffix, 129, 2—(7232), suff. 
form of 722, Imper. in 41>, 74, n. 19 —("pry), from PIE, p. 174, at the top; 
with Rebhia as a divider of otizor; — my righteous God, 104, 1 —(7%2), 3 
with art. vowel; from “X, which takes Qamets, when it has the article and 
a distinctive accent, (here a —, i. e. Tiphha anterius or initial), see p. 42, TIL 
14.—("22m hon-né-ni), Imper. of j27, with suff. "2—, 288, A, 66, n. 2. 

(3) 2°52, lit. until what? i. e. what time = how long? The next words 
are literally thus: o glory for shame, the copula (shall be) being omitted, 
141.—(i7253>), the > stands connected with an implied 437; meaning: 
How long shall my honour be shamefully treated? viz. by those niles men in 
the eye of the writer; see Lex. > m2. Here Tiphha initial is a divider of 


APP. | § 4. nores on psaLm 4: 4—3; 2, 359 


otizou.—(jA2nNM), with & treated as Guttural, 62, 2; ending j3-, 47. n. 4; 
Imperf. A, and for the (—) under 4, see 59,n. 1. Before this otizog 2 73 
is implied —(sepan), Piel 2 plur. Imperf.; Dagh. forte omitted in pi 20, 
3. b. 

(4) 5253, 5 but still, p. 278,b; 525, Imper. of 239.—(m>e7), Hiph. of 
mp , distinguished, rendered illustrious, in contrast with his being put to shame 
by his enemies, as mentioned above.—(1> 370m), his beloved, form in 83, 5; ° 
%>, 113, 2; entirely = i3°On.—(*N7P2), 129, 2—(75x), like a noun plur. 
with suff, 101, 3. (5) Tremble, and sin not. In \xzmh, 2 is in pause, 59, 
n. 1; the Imperf. is used for the Imper., 125, 3. ¢; with Merka Mahpakh in- 
stead of the usual Atknahh.—(228), etc., lit. speak in your hearts, i. e. com- 
mune with yourselves, reflect well upon the matter; 22> is the suff. form 
of 333, Dee. IV. 97, 4.—On your beds, i. e. at a season of retirement— 
(7251), and be silent, or be still, the first is the better here, because it stands 
in direct contrast with the slander of which the writer complains; Imper. 
of D253, 66, 2 and 3. 

(6) PI¥, 104, 1; sacrifices of righteousness means, ‘such sacrifices as jus- 
tice or propriety demands for the sins which they had committed,’ i. e. ex- 
piatory offerings —(m7n7 >y), trust in Jehovah, the Heb. verb taking a prep. 
after it, in this case, like the English one ; or, in other words, 58 is put be- 
fore the object of trust, in order to designate the direction of it. (7) sas, 
Imperf. Hiph. of M87, with suff. 12-.—(252), the latter half of the Merka 
Mahpakh here is written on this word, and the first half on the preceding 
word, although not connected by a Maqqeph. The like of this may be 
found elsewhere, but it is not very common. Why an Athnahh was not put 
upon 310, instead of this artificial disposition of the matter, we may ask, 
but cannot well get an answer—(m2), Imper., and of the form of verbs &>; 
for a verb 4> would here be pointed D2; root Nt2; so that in O32, the m 
is put for &, 74, VI. n. 21,5; also the 5 for ©, see letter & in Lex. Some 
copies, moreover, read N%3.—(7728 i), Light of thy countenance ; the face 
is lighted up by approbation, by smiles; and this is the light here asked for 
= look propitiously upon us. 

(8) Han, 66, n. 3; for mm, 44, n.4,b.—(m3), 2, 117, 1. .Gladness im- 
plied after the 2, viz. more than [the gladness] of the season.— (0237), [when] 
their corn; for "2% (when) is to be supplied here, 121, 3; 5— sufi—(124), 
in pause for 427 , root 227. (9) ‘3m yahh-dav, lit. unitedly, at the same time. 
—(nazux), Imperf. with H-, 48, 2—(ju781), 72 in pause. Meaning: ‘I 
will lie down and sleep both together..—(7733), lit. in loneliness, here an ad- 
verb, only.—(mws>), >, p. 190, ¢; Lex. >, B. 3—(-22°win), Imperf. Hiph. 
of 2", with suff. "3-. 

Psalm V. 

(1) mibmin, with the article; the like without one, in Ps. iv.—(2) 

"vax, plur. with suff. ; object placed first, 142, 1. e—(2187), Hiph. Imper. 


360 § 4. nNoTEs ON GEN. 5: 3—13. [app. 


with S—>.—(3"3), Imper. of (73, with H-.—(03°45), suff. form of 3535; 
my moaning. 

(3) ma-uipn, Imper., as hefore—(>%p>), to the voice ; we also say: Lis- 
ten to.— ("318), suff. form of D178 she-vd>. (74) “PB, Acc. of time, 116, 2. 
—"F2S8), I7 rokh, short 6 before the Maqqeph; usually explained as mean- 
ing: I will make ready [my words] for thee; 1 prefer the intrans. sense: J 
will make preparation for thee, i. e. in order to approach thee. Then follows: 
And I will look [toward thee].—(728x) is in Piel, which designates intensity. 

(5) Lit, for not a God taking pleasure in iniquity art thou.—(375"), Im- 
perf. Kal of "53, with suff. taking the tone; 7 in such a case is permitted 
by the Heb. idiom, 135, 3. ¢, but not by the English; 3 for 43, 9,9. 1. 6. 
(6) sa8ant ND, shall not establish themselves, Hithp.— (rei), with (—) un- 
der the middle stem-letter instead of (—), 73, n. 1. 

(7) 7925, pl. const. participial noun, 132, 1. 6.—(o%23 wx), 104, 2— 
(M2721), UN is implied before it—(azm"), Piel Imperf., Dagh. excluded 
by the 9, and so we have m, 63,3; but (—) is usual before 4, m, and >. 
(8) 352, in the abundance, ete.—(FN73), 4, 29, 4. b—(monmtiy), Hithpalet 
Imperf. ‘of } mm; the m prefix and the 8 of the root exchanged, 53, 2; for 
mi—, see 74, n. 18. ; 

(9) "202, Imper. of nm2, 74, n. 19; “2— suff, p. 288, .—(“11hn), belong- 
ing to the Qeri, “294; in the Kethibh, the radical 4 is restored, and regularly 
pointed; “ with Pattah, p. 121, second par. from the top. (10) m7 Ba, 
in his mouth, sn- suff.; generic here, for it refers to "777 .—(F2522), prop. 
Niph, Part. fem, — established thing, truth, 105, 3.—(p27p), for Hhireq short 
here, see p. 174, at the top.—(ni8n hdv-voth), lit. mischiefs, see plural in 106, 
2.—(pI43; and mivi>), nouns in jj—3; one with, the other without the 4, 8, 4. 
—(j;p">m5), Hiph. Imperf. ; for the jr, see 47, n. 4, 

(11) poeign, Hiph. Imper., with suff. o-—(1>87), Imperf. of 5b2.— 
(nammixya2) 2 prep.; om suffi; ground-form nxzzi2, Dec. I— 
(ormsup), o— suff; for B, p. 174, at the top.— eonsan), Hiph. Im- 
per. of M72, 65, 2; 2— poet. suff—{i2), verb >.—(72), in pause, 
101, 2; see also 137, (12) 32 701M, see in Ps. 2: 7.—(a2229), Piel Im- 
perf, 3 plur., the (—) under 3 restored by the pause-accent, Tiphha ini- 
tial ; which, though prepositive (15, Rem. I. 2), influences the tone on the 
penult syllable, 29, 4. b.—(7jo"1), Hiph. Imperf. of 720; lit. for thou wilt 
cover over them, 137.—(5%>27"), p. 118, second par.—(72¥), 29, 4. b. 

(13) 91S, Piel; for 3, 22, 5.a—(m225), article after 3, 107, 3.a; fem. 
of 4, from 422, 84, IL 10, 11.—(jix>), second Acc. after "2903"; 52- suff, 
p. 289; for 2m instead of 2m, see p. 118, second par. from top; for double 
Acc., see 136, 2. Sentiment: ‘Thou wilt encompass him [with] favour, as 
a shield [encompasses.”] 


oe 


tas 
iain" a | oe > 
ae tal yak 


ee 
Os 4 
é 


et, 
. bit 
— 





ety ‘4 ei - } 4eor wi Ln y 
ea SM ase Ao ate Mud ata 
gtk art : s re | x: 
4 Ph” 17 + * ¥ , | 
> ‘ Cane Ak bl Pity ip 
A ry ‘a ' van), ’ y) 
aie, ve My ot a mytsi ee : ae | x 
CNA Okay 7 CTP ae 
ee ~7 a : r, 
We. rast ; Aa ‘— ‘ aah : ‘ ‘he: 
atid, Vs “ | / 
" | se Me” ng " Lt ae n phat” 
a wl . Z eg ar ie Pa 
iyi Ld ; : we A 
i “+ 4 ’ of ete | “we rey 4 i. 
eS fi ‘ 
7 MG REO ice Phy A an mm 
5 sh hiigac. Oh 
‘Cie re inner ae y ey \ 
“Can | 5, ae 
f we perth e e 
; by Aad ts 
i Rie Es * 
hi . S* 7 ren’ i i : 
zu is 3 , 
4 r 3 fue 
t ~* 


a 2. | 
> His : ; . 4 a fr a * a: 
ie 3 . ; * : ‘ iy €| , vind hark: ay aK 


a a 


Ge 


’ : f ; taty ; ‘ihe Mika sid 
ir 5 ye Se Bg 


¥ ; an 
‘ r 4 oe A ‘ 
Se ahh 
Bm yeas oe eee ; 
. . * i, ‘ 
ce © " 
ae ea | \ 
ed ti “ \ 
ot tae 
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